Thezhmic
Thezhmic (/ˈθɛʒmɪk/, Native: Ŧəźmikós /θəʒmiˈkos/, Liźḗnom /liˈʒeːnom/) is an Indo-European language.
Thezhmic | |
---|---|
Ŧəźmikós | |
Pronunciation | [θəʒmiˈkós] |
Created by | Shariifka |
Indo-European
| |
Early form | Proto-Thezhmic
|
Introduction
Phonology
Orthography
Thezhmic is written with the Thezhmic alphabet.
In this article, the following romanization is used:
Letter | IPA | Remarks |
---|---|---|
A a | a | |
Ā ā | aː | |
B b | b | |
C c | tʃ | |
D d | d | |
Đ đ | ð | |
E e | e | |
Ē ē | eː | |
Ə ə | ə | |
Ə̃ ə̃ | ə̃ | |
F f | f | |
G g | ɡ | |
Ġ ġ | ʁ | |
H h | h | |
Ħ ħ | ħ | |
I i | i | |
Ī ī | iː | |
J j | dʒ | |
K k | k | |
L l | l | |
M m | m | |
N n | n | |
O o | o | |
Ō ō | oː | |
P p | p | |
Q q | q | |
R r | r | |
S s | s | |
Ś ś | ʃ | |
T t | t | |
Ŧ ŧ | θ | |
U u | u | |
Ū ū | uː | |
Ũ ũ | ũ | |
V v | v | |
W w | w | |
X x | χ | |
Y y | j | |
Z z | z | |
Ź ź | ʒ | |
Ɂ ɂ (ʔ) | ʔ | Not written word-initially. |
Ҁ ҁ (ʕ) | ʕ |
Consonants
Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | (ɲ) | (ŋ) | (ɴ) | |||||
Stop | voiceless | p | t | k | q | ʔ | ||||
voiced | b | d | ɡ | |||||||
Affricate | voiceless | tʃ | ||||||||
voiced | dʒ | |||||||||
Fricative | voiceless | f | θ | s | ʃ | χ | ħ | h | ||
voiced | v | ð | z | ʒ | ʁ | ʕ | ||||
Approximant | j | w | ||||||||
Lateral | l | (ʎ) | ||||||||
Trill | r |
Vowels
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i, iː, (ĩː)¹ | u, uː, ũ, (ũː)¹ | |
Mid | e, eː, (ẽː)¹ | ə, ə̃ | o, oː, (õː)¹ |
Open | a, aː, (ãː)¹ |
Notes:
¹ Long nasal vowels are an allophonic pronunciation of long vowels followed by -n- before coronal fricatives.
Any non-nasal vowel can form a falling dipthong with -i and -u (unless it results in a sequence of two identical vowels).
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Syllabicization
Liquids (r, l), nasals (n, m), and glides (y, w) have syllabic counterparts that replace them when required by phonotactics.
Consonant | Syllabic counterpart |
---|---|
r | ər |
l | əl |
n | ə̃ |
m | ũ |
y | i |
w | u |
If none of these consonants are present, a schwa (-ə-) is inserted.
Alternatively, the offending consonant cluster may be simplified through phonetic changes, but this is non-productive and has been reversed in most cases.
Hiatus resolution
When hiatus would occur, it is resolved by inserting an epenthetic consonant. This consonant depends on the vowels.
Nominals
Nouns
Nouns have two stems, which may oray not be identical. The strong stem is used in the nominative, vocative, and accusative while the weak stem is used in the remaining cases. Depending on the noun, the nominative singular (and, for neuter nouns, the vocative and accusative singular) may also be irregular. Additionally, some neuter nouns have an irregular nominative/vocative/accusative plural.
O-stems and ā-stems usually have identical strong and weak stems, while other noun classes are more likely to have multiple stems.
The stems are given in the citation form: nominative singular, (nominative plural), genitive singular
- The nominative plural is used in the citation form when the nominative singular and/or nominative plural is irregular.
O-stems
Case | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
m. | n. | m./n. | m. | n. | |
Nominative | -os | -om | -ō | -ōs | -ā |
Vocative | -e | ||||
Accusative | -om | -ons | |||
Instrumental | -ō | -ovom | -ōis | ||
Dative | -ōi | -ovos | |||
Ablative | -ōt | ||||
Genitive | -ōs | -oizous | -oizōm | ||
Locative | -ei | -oizu |
Examples:
- úlqos, -ōs (m.): wolf
- nizdós, -ōs (m.): nest
- wérjom, -ōs (n.): work
Ā-stems
Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
---|---|---|---|
f. | f. | f. | |
Nominative | -ā; -ī¹ | -āi; -ī¹ | -ās; -īs¹ |
Vocative | -a; -i¹ | ||
Accusative | -ām; -īm¹ | -āns; -īns¹ | |
Instrumental | -ā | -āvom | -āvis |
Dative | -āi | -āvos | |
Ablative | -āt | ||
Genitive | -ās | -āzous | -āzōm |
Locative | -āi | -āzu |
Notes:
¹ Some ā-stem nouns have a strong stem ending in -ī instead of -ā. Such nouns' weak stems end in -y- (which precedes the ā-stem endings). Such nouns may be referred to as "ī/yā-stem nouns".
Examples:
- écwā, -ās (f.): mare
- þōnā́, -ā́s (f.): grain
- ġnā́, -ā́s (f.): woman
- də̃źwā́, -ā́s (f.): tongue
- ulqī́, ulqyā́s (f.): she-wolf
I-stems
Case | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
m./f. | n. | m./f./n. | m./f. | n. | |
Nominative | -is | -i | -ī | -ēis | -ī |
Vocative | -i | ||||
Accusative | -im | -ins | |||
Instrumental | -ī | -ivom | -ivis | ||
Dative | -ēi | -ivos | |||
Ablative | -eit | ||||
Genitive | -eis | -izous | -izōm | ||
Locative | -ēi | -izu |
Examples:
- méntis, mə̃téis (f.): mind, intellect
- móri, ũréis (n.): sea
- hóstis, hostéis (m.): foreigner
- ʕówis, ʕówis (f.): sheep
U-stems
Case | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
m./f. | n. | m./f./n. | m./f. | n. | |
Nominative | -us | -u | -ū | -ewes | -ū |
Vocative | -u | ||||
Accusative | -um¹ | -uns | |||
Instrumental | -ū | -uvom | -uvis | ||
Dative | -ewei | -uvos | |||
Ablative | -eut | ||||
Genitive | -eus | -uzous | -uzōm | ||
Locative | -ēu | -uzu |
Notes:
¹ When the accusative would have ended in -Vum (where V represents a vowel), the -u- instead dropped causing the preceding vowel to be lengthened.
Examples:
- jéustus, justéus (m.): taste
- fāźús, fāźéus (m.): arm
- pérkus, pərkéus (m.): oak
- jónu, jnéus (n.): knee
Liquid/nasal-stems
These nouns have stems ending in a liquid (r or l) or a nasal (n or m).
In some cases, the stem-final consonant may vary betwen strong and weak stems - the most common example is an alternation between r and n in neuter nouns.
The following shorthand symbols are used:
- C: represents the stem-final consonant (may be r, l, n, or m).
- S: represents the above consonant's "syllabic" counterpart.
- V: represents the vowel preceding the stem-final consonant (may be e or o).
- L: represents the above vowel's lengthened counterpart (i.e. ē or ō).
Case | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
m./f. | n. | m./f./n. | m./f. | n. | |
Nominative | -LC | -S; -VC¹ | -VCe | -VCes | -LC |
Vocative | -VC | ||||
Accusative | -VCũ | -VCə̃s | |||
Instrumental | -Cē² | -Svom; -Cvom³ | -Svis; -Cvis³ | ||
Dative | -Cei² | -Svos; -Cvos³ | |||
Ablative | -Cet² | ||||
Genitive | -Ces² | -Cous² | -Cōm² | ||
Locative | -Ci² | -Szu; -Czu³ |
Notes:
¹ Depending on the noun, the neuter nominative/vocative/accusative singular may end in -S or -VC.
² When a forbidden consonant would result, -ə- is inserted.
³ -S- becomes -C- after a vowel.
'Examples::
- pátēr, patrés (m.): father
- ŧéźōm, ŧəźmés (f.): homeland
- ənómə̃, ənémnes (n.): name
- ścũmṓn, ścũnés (m.): man
- wódər, wédōr, udnés (n.): water
- sṓwəl, saunés (n.): sun
Consonant-stems
Case | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
m./f. | n. | m./f./n. | m./f. | n. | |
Nominative | -s; (irregular)¹ | - | -e | -es | -a; (irregular)¹ |
Vocative | - | ||||
Accusative | -ũ | -ə̃s | |||
Instrumental | -ē | -fom² | -fis² | ||
Dative | -ei | -fos² | |||
Ablative | -et | ||||
Genitive | -es | -ous | -ōm | ||
Locative | -i | -su² |
Notes:
¹ Often irregular.
² Causes a preceding voiced fricative to devoice.
Examples:
- pṓs, pódes, pedés (m.): foot
- nóqs, nóqtes, néqtes (f.): night
- névos, névōs, névezes (n.): cloud
- mḗns, mḗnzes (m.): moon
Weak stem patterns
Nouns with weak stems that differ from their strong stems tend to follow certain trends. Common ways to derive the weak stem from the strong stem include (note that multiple ways may co-occur):
- Shift of accent from the root to the ending.
- Shortening a long vowel.
- Change of -o- to -e-.
- Dropping the nucleus vowel (usually -o- or -e-).
- If this results in a forbidden consonant cluster:
- If one of the consonants in that cluster is a liquid (r, l), a nasal (n, m), or a glide (y, w), it is converted to its syllabic counterpart.
- Otherwise, the cluster is broken with -ə-.
- If this results in a forbidden consonant cluster:
Note that even if one or more of the above changes are possible, they may not occur in a given noun. Unpredictable changes can also occur.
Adjectives
Adjectives are declined as the noun classes; however, in constrast to the masculine and neuter, the feminine almost always falls under the ā-stem class.
The formation of the feminine generally depends on the masculine and neuter class as per the table below:
Name of adjective class | Masculine and neuter class | Formation of feminine |
---|---|---|
o/ā-stem | o-stem | masc./neut. weak stem + -ā, -ās |
u-stem | u-stem | masc./neut. weak stem + -ewī, -uyās |
i-stem | i-stem | masc./neut. weak stem + -ī, -iyās |
liquid/nasal-stem | liquid/nasal-stem | masc./neut. weak stem + -Cī, -Cyās¹ |
consonant-stem | consonant-stem | masc./neut. weak stem + -ī, -(y)ās¹ |
Notes:
¹ The feminine weak stem may end in a palatalized consonant instead of -y-. However, cases where this would occur have mostly been reversed by anology.
The citation form of adjectives is: masculine singular nominative, neuter singular nominative, (masculine/neuter singular genitive), (feminine singular nominative), (feminine singular genitive).
- The genitive(s) can be dropped when the adjective is declined regularly. This most often happens with ō/ā-stem adjectives.
- The feminine singular nominative is dropped when feminine forms are identical to the masculine. This occurs in a few adjectives (never o/ā-class), the most notable of which are the cardinal numbers 3 and 4.
Like nouns, adjectives have weak stems. These are formed similarly as those of nouns.
Numerals
Number | Cardinal | Ordinal |
---|---|---|
1 | sḗm, sém, smés, smī́, smyā́s | parwós, -óm, -ā́ |
2 | dwṓ, dwṓ, dwā́i | ħánteros, -om, -ā |
3 | trḗis, trī́, trizṓm | tritós, -óm, -ā́ |
4 | qetwóres, qetwṓr, qeturṓm | qeturtós, -óm, -ā́ |
5 | pénqe, -zōm, -vis | penqtós, -óm, -ā́ |
6 | swéśś, -ōm, -fis | sweśśtós, -óm, -ā́ |
7 | septṹ, -zōm, -fis | septũmós, -óm, -ā́ |
8 | ʕośtṓu, -zōm, -vis | ʕośtowós, -óm, -ā́ |
9 | ənéwə̃, -zōm, -vis | ənewə̃nós, -óm, -ā́ |
10 | décũt, -ōm, -fis | decũtós, -óm, -ā́ |
20 | dwī́conte, -ous, -fom | dwīcũtós, -óm, -ā́ |
30 | trī́cont, -ōm, -fis | trīcũtós, -óm, -ā́ |
40 | qétwarcont, -ōm, -fis | qetwarcontós, -óm, -ā́ |
50 | pénqēcont, -ōm, -fis | penqēcontós, -óm, -ā́ |
60 | swéśścont, -ōm, -fis | sweśścontós, -óm, -ā́ |
70 | septúncont, -ōm, -fis | septuncontós, -óm, -ā́ |
80 | ʕośtṓcont, -ōm, -fis | ʕośtōcontós, -óm, -ā́ |
90 | ənéwancont, -ōm, -fis | ənewancontós, -óm, -ā́ |
100 | cũtóm, -ōs | cũtomós, -óm, -ā́ |
200 | (dwṓ) cũtṓ, (dwóizous) cũtóizous; dwōcũtṓ, -óizous | dwōcũtomós, -óm, -ā́ |
300 | trī́ cũtā́, trizṓm cũtóizōm; trīcũtā́, -óizōm | trīcũtomós, -óm, -ā́ |
1000 | śézlom, śézlōs | śezlomós, -óm, -ā́ |
2000 | (dwṓ) śézlō, (dwóizous) śézloizous; dwōśézlō, -oizous | dwōśezlomós, -óm, -ā́ |
3000 | trī́ śézlā, trizṓm śézloizōm; trīśézlā, -oizōm | trīśezlomós, -óm, -ā́ |
Note that numbers above 4 do not vary by gender.
Numbers between 5-10 and decades besides 20 take plural inflection. 20 takes dual inflection. Note that the accusative of these numbers is identical to the nominative.
100 and 1000 take singular inflection (with dual/plural used for multiple hundreds/thousands).
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
Case | First person | Second person | Reflexive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | All numbers | ||
Nominative | ejóm | wḗ | wḗis | tū́ | yū́ | yū́s | — | |
Vocative | ||||||||
Accusative | tonic | əmé | anwé | ə̃zmé | twé | ūwé | uzmé | swé |
enclitic | me | nō | nōs | te | wō | wōs | se | |
Instrumental | əmói | anwḗ | ə̃zmḗ | tói | ūwḗ | uzmḗ | sói | |
Dative | tonic | əméźi | anwéi | ə̃zméi | tévi | ūwéi | uzméi | sévi |
enclitic | mei | nō | nōs | tei | wō | wōs | sei | |
Ablative | əmét | anwét | ə̃zmét | twét | ūwét | uzmét | swét | |
Genitive | tonic | əméne | anwés | ə̃zmés | téwe | ūwés | uzmés | séwe |
enclitic | mei | nō | nōs | tei | wō | wōs | sei | |
Locative | əmói | anwí | ə̃zmí | tói | ūwí | uzmí | sói | |
Possessive adjective | əmós, -óm, -ā́ | anwós, -óm, -ā́ | ə̃zmós, -óm, -ā́ | twós, -óm, -ā́ | ūwós, -óm, -ā́ | uzmós, -óm, -ā́ | swós, -óm, -ā́ |
Case | Singular | Dual | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
m. | n. | f. | m./n. | f. | m. | n. | f. | |
Nominative | ís | ít | ī́ | ī́ | ḗis | ī́ | ī́s | |
Vocative | í | í | ||||||
Accusative | ím | ī́m | íns | ī́ns | ||||
Instrumental | ézmē | éśśā | éivom | éśśāvom | éivis | éśśāvis | ||
Dative | ézmei | éśśāi | éivos | éśśāvos | ||||
Ablative | ézmet | éśśāt | ||||||
Genitive | ézmes | éśśās | éizous | éśśāzous | éizōm | éśśāzōm | ||
Locative | ézmi | éśśāi | éizu | éśśāzu |
Demonstrative pronouns
There are three demonstratives:
- The neutral demonstrative tos, -ot, -ā "this, that" (declension in the table below).
- The near demonstrative cis, -it, -ī "this" (declined as the third person pronoun is).
- The far demonstrative énos, -ot, -ā "that" (declined as the neutral demonstrative tos).
Case | Singular | Dual | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
m. | n. | f. | m./n. | f. | m. | n. | f. | |
Nominative | tós | tót | tā́ | tṓ | tā́i | tói | tā́ | tā́i |
Vocative | té | tá | ||||||
Accusative | tóm | tā́m | tóns | tā́ns | ||||
Instrumental | tózmē | tóśśā | tóivom | tóśśāvom | tóivis | tóśśāvis | ||
Dative | tózmei | tóśśāi | tóivos | tóśśāvos | ||||
Ablative | tózmet | tóśśāt | ||||||
Genitive | tózmes | tóśśās | tóizous | tóśśāzous | tóizōm | tóśśāzōm | ||
Locative | tózmi | tóśśāi | tóizu | tóśśāzu |
Relative pronoun
The relative pronoun is yós, -ót, -ā́ "that which". It is declined as tos.
Interrogative pronoun
The interrogative pronoun is qís, -ít, -ī́ "who, what". It is declined as is.
Indefinite pronoun
The indefinite pronoun is qós, -ót, -ā́ "someone, something". It is declined as tos.
Other pronouns
- ħályos, -ot, -ā "other, another" (declined as tos)
Derivation
Verbs
Stems
Verbs have four stems:
- Present stem
- Future stem
- Perfect stem
- Neutral stem
Each of these stems may have strong and weak variants.
The first three stems are given by the principle parts. The neutral stem can be derived from the present or future stem by the following rules:
- If one of the two stems is derived from the other by adding something (a suffix, infix, prefix, etc.), the simpler stem (i.e. the one that does not have the addition) is used.
- If the stems are suppletive, the perfect stem is used.
Regardless of which stem is used, the neutral stem inherits both the strong and weak variants from its parent stem.
Principal parts
The principal parts are:
- The 1S present indicative
- The 1P present indicative (if the present weak stem is different than the strong stem)
- The 1S future indicative
- The 1P future indicative (if the future weak stem is different than the strong stem)
- The 1S perfect indicative
- The 1P perfect indicative (if the perfect weak stem is different than the strong stem)
For example, the citation form of the verb "to be" is ézmi, əzmés, fū́mi, fevū́ħa. Note that the 1P future and perfect forms are excluded since the weak stems are identical to the corresponding strong stems.
Tenses
The following simple tenses/moods exist:
- Based on the present stem:
- Present indicative: Expresses an action/state that is ongoing or that is done habitually.
- Present subjunctive: Expresses an ongoing hypothetical or counterfactual action/state. It is also used as the negative counterpart to the durative imperative.
- Imperfect: Expresses an ongoing or habitual action/state in the past.
- Presumptive: Expresses an action/state that is presumed to be ongoing.
- Durative imperative: Expresses a command or request to do something continuously or to continue to do it.
- Based on the future stem:
- Future indicative: Expresses an action/state in the future. It is also used as a present tense in narratives.
- Future subjunctive: Expresses a hypothetical or counterfactual action/state that has not yet occurred.
- Gnomic: Expresses general truths. It is also used as a past tense in narratives.
- Jussive: Expresses a request or encouragement for an action to be performed (less emphatic than the imperative). It is also used as the negative counterpart of the simple imperative.
- Simple imperative: Expresses a request or command for an action to be performed.
- Based on the perfect stem:
- Perfect indicative: Expresses a simple action in the past.
- Perfect subjunctive: Expresses a hypothetical action in the past.
- Conditional: Expresses a counterfactual action/state in the past, or an action/state whose validity is dependent on such a condition.
Stem patterns
When it comes to stems, there are three patterns depending on the tense:
- Pattern 1 (mixed stem): Strong stem in the singular, secondary stem in the plural and impersonal.
- Indicative tenses follow this pattern.
- Pattern 2 (strong stem): Strong stem throughout the tense.
- Subjunctive tenses follow this pattern.
- Pattern 3 (weak stem): Weak stem throughout the tense.
- Non-indicative tenses that are not subjunctive follow this pattern.
Voice
There are three voices that are indicated by conjugation:
- Active:
- This is the default form of a verb.
- The verb agrees with the subject who does the action.
- Middle:
- It can have anticausative or autocausative meanings.
- With intransitive verbs, it often has an autobenefactive meaning. There may be special connotations for specific verbs.
- Passive:
- The verb agrees with the patient on which the action is done.
- With intransitive verbs, it often implies that an action occurred without volition/intent. There may be special connotations for specific verbs.
Stress
In verbs, stress is usually on the stem.
However, some athematic verbs take stress on the ending whenever the weak stem is used. This stress in always on the final syllable of the verb except in 3P forms ending in -enti, in which case the stress is on the penultimate syllable (i.e. -énti).
In partiples, infinitives, and other derived nouns/adjectives, such verbs take stress on the case endings except in the primary stems of active participles, which take stress on the first syllable of the derivational ending.
In all cases, the stress patterns can easily be identified from the principal parts.
Verb conjugation
Verb classes
There are two main classes of verbs.
- Athematic verbs - These are classified into three sub-classes:
- Long vowel stems: Strong and weak stems are identical and end in a long vowel.
- Short vowel stems: The weak stem (and maybe also the strong stem) ends in a short vowel.
- Consonant stems: These have a stem that ends in a consonant - most perfect stems and a few other stems fall in this class.
- Thematic verbs - The majority of verbs fall under this class (except in the perfect). There are subclasses of thematic verbs depending on the formation of the various stems.
Note that it is possible for the different stems of a single verb to be in different classes or sub-classes.
Forms based on the present stem
The following tenses are based on the present stem:
Form | Stem type |
---|---|
Present indicative | Mixed |
Present subjunctive | Strong |
Imperfect | Mixed |
Presumptive | Weak |
Durative imperative | Weak |
Present participles | Weak |
The endings are as follows:
Present active participle | -nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ə̃tes, -ntī/ə̃tī, -ntyās/ə̃tyās | -nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ontes, -ntī/ontī, -ntyās/ontyās | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person/ Number |
Present indicative | Present subjunctive | Imperfect | Presumptive | Durative imperative | |||||
1S | -(ũ)mi | -ō | -(ʕ)ōmi | -ũ/m | -om | -yem/īm | -oyem | -(ũ)mu | -omu | |
2S | -zi/si/əzi | -ezi | -(ʔ)ēzi | -(ə)s | -es | -is/īs | -ois | -đi/ŧi/əđi | -eđi | |
3S | -(ə)ti | -eti | -(ʔ)ēti | -(ə)t | -et | -it/īt | -oit | -(ə)tu | -etu | |
1D | -(u)wes | -owes | -(ʕ)ōwes | -(u)we | -owe | -iwe/īwe | -oiwe | -(u)weu | -oweu | |
2D | -(ə)tons | -etons | -(ʔ)ētons | -(ə)tom | -etom | -itom/ītom | -oitom | -(ə)tonđi | -etonđi | |
3D | -(ə)tāns | -etāns | -(ʔ)ētāns | -(ə)tām | -etām | -itām/ītām | -oitām | -(ə)tāmu | -etāmu | |
1P | -(ũ)mes | -omes | -(ʕ)ōmes | -(ũ)me | -ome | -ime/īme | -oime | -(ũ)meu | -omeu | |
2P | -(ə)tes | -etes | -(ʔ)ētes | -(ə)te | -ete | -ite/īte | -oite | -(ə)teđi | -eteđi | |
3P | -nti/enti | -onti | -(ʕ)ōnti | -nt/ent | -ont | -yent/īnt | -oyent | -ntu/entu | -ontu | |
IMP | -(ə)ri | -ori | -(ʕ)ōri | -(ə)r | -or | -yer/īr | -oyer | -(ə)ru | -oru |
Present middle participle | -mnos/umnos, -mnom/umnom, -mnā/umnā | -omnos, -omnom, -omnā | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person/ Number |
Present indicative | Present subjunctive | Imperfect | Presumptive | Durative imperative | |||||
1S | -(ũ)mazi | -omazi | -(ʕ)ōmazi | -(ũ)mas | -omas | -yemas/īmas | -oyemas | -(ũ)mazu | -omazu | |
2S | -(ə)stazi | -estazi | -(ʔ)ēstazi | -(ə)stas | -estas | -istas/īstas | -oistas | -zos/sos/əzos | -ezos | |
3S | -(ə)tozi | -etozi | -(ʔ)ētozi | -(ə)tos | -etos | -itos/ītos | -oitos | -(ə)tozu | -etozu | |
1D | -(u)westas | -owestas | -(ʕ)ōwestas | -(u)weđas | -oweđas | -iweđas/īweđas | -oiweđas | -(u)weđazu | -oweđazu | |
2D | -(ə)tonstas | -etonstas | -(ʔ)ētonstas | -(ə)tonđas | -etonđas | -itonđas/ītonđas | -oitonđas | -(ə)tonđazu | -etonđazu | |
3D | -(ə)tānstas | -etānstas | -(ʔ)ētānstas | -(ə)tānđas | -etānđas | -itānđas/ītānđas | -oitānđas | -(ə)tānđazu | -etānđazu | |
1P | -(ũ)mestas | -omestas | -(ʕ)ōmestas | -(ũ)međas | -omeđas | -īmeđas/īmeđas | -oimeđas | -(ũ)međazu | -omeđazu | |
2P | -(ə)testas | -etestas | -(ʔ)ētestas | -(ə)teđas | -eteđas | -iteđas/īteđas | -oiteđas | -đwes/ŧwes/əđwes | -eđwes | |
3P | -ntozi/entozi | -ontozi | -(ʕ)ōntozi | -ntos/entos | -ontos | -yentos/īntos | -oyentos | -ntozu/entozu | -ontozu |
Present passive participle | -(ə)tos, -(ə)tom, -(ə)tā | -etos, -etom, -etā | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person/ Number |
Present indicative | Present subjunctive | Imperfect | Presumptive | Durative imperative | |||||
1S | -(ũ)mar | -omar | -(ʕ)ōmar | -(ũ)ma | -oma | -yema/īma | -oyema | -(ũ)mau | -omau | |
2S | -(ə)star | -estar | -(ʔ)ēstar | -(ə)sta | -esta | -ista/īsta | -oista | -zo/so/əzo | -ezo | |
3S | -(ə)tor | -etor | -(ʔ)ētor | -(ə)to | -eto | -ito/īto | -oito | -(ə)tou | -etou | |
1D | -(u)westa | -owesta | -(ʕ)ōwesta | -(u)weđa | -oweđa | -iweđa/īweđa | -oiweđa | -(u)weđau | -oweđau | |
2D | -(ə)tonsta | -etonsta | -(ʔ)ētonsta | -(ə)tonđa | -etonđa | -itonđa/ītonđa | -oitonđa | -(ə)tonđau | -etonđau | |
3D | -(ə)tānsta | -etānsta | -(ʔ)ētānsta | -(ə)tānđa | -etānđa | -itānđa/ītānđa | -oitānđa | -(ə)tānđau | -etānđau | |
1P | -(ũ)mesta | -omesta | -(ʕ)ōmesta | -(ũ)međa | -omeđa | -īmeđa/īmeđa | -oimeđa | -(ũ)međau | -omeđau | |
2P | -(ə)testa | -etesta | -(ʔ)ētesta | -(ə)teđa | -eteđa | -iteđa/īteđa | -oiteđa | -đwe/ŧwe/əđwe | -eđwe | |
3P | -ntor/entor | -ontor | -(ʕ)ōntor | -nto/ento | -onto | -yento/īnto | -oyento | -ntou/entou | -ontou |
Notes:
- Phonemes in brackets are inserted after consonant clusters when phonotactically necessary (if a vowel) or after vowels (if a consonant).
- When two endings are given separated by a slash, they are used after vowels and after consonants respectively. If a third is also given, it is used after consonant clusters.
Forms based on the future stem
The following tenses are based on the future stem:
Form | Stem type |
---|---|
Future indicative | Mixed |
Future subjunctive | Strong |
Gnomic | Mixed |
Jussive | Weak |
Simple imperative | Weak |
Future participles | Weak |
The endings are as follows:
Future active participle | -nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ə̃tes, -ntī/ə̃tī, -ntyās/ə̃tyās | -nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ontes, -ntī/ontī, -ntyās/ontyās | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person/ Number |
Future indicative | Future subjunctive | Gnomic | Jussive | Simple imperative | |||||
1S | -(ũ)mi | -ō | -(ʕ)ōmi | -ũ/m | -om | -yem/īm | -oyem | -(ũ)mu | -omu | |
2S | -zi/si/əzi | -ezi | -(ʔ)ēzi | -(ə)s | -es | -is/īs | -ois | -đi/ŧi/əđi | -eđi | |
3S | -(ə)ti | -eti | -(ʔ)ēti | -(ə)t | -et | -it/īt | -oit | -(ə)tu | -etu | |
1D | -(u)wes | -owes | -(ʕ)ōwes | -(u)we | -owe | -iwe/īwe | -oiwe | -(u)weu | -oweu | |
2D | -(ə)tons | -etons | -(ʔ)ētons | -(ə)tom | -etom | -itom/ītom | -oitom | -(ə)tonđi | -etonđi | |
3D | -(ə)tāns | -etāns | -(ʔ)ētāns | -(ə)tām | -etām | -itām/ītām | -oitām | -(ə)tāmu | -etāmu | |
1P | -(ũ)mes | -omes | -(ʕ)ōmes | -(ũ)me | -ome | -ime/īme | -oime | -(ũ)meu | -omeu | |
2P | -(ə)tes | -etes | -(ʔ)ētes | -(ə)te | -ete | -ite/īte | -oite | -(ə)teđi | -eteđi | |
3P | -nti/enti | -onti | -(ʕ)ōnti | -nt/ent | -ont | -yent/īnt | -oyent | -ntu/entu | -ontu | |
IMP | -(ə)ri | -ori | -(ʕ)ōri | -(ə)r | -or | -yer/īr | -oyer | -(ə)ru | -oru |
Future middle participle | -mnos/umnos, -mnom/umnom, -mnā/umnā | -omnos, -omnom, -omnā | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person/ Number |
Present indicative | Present subjunctive | Imperfect | Presumptive | Durative imperative | |||||
1S | -(ũ)mazi | -omazi | -(ʕ)ōmazi | -(ũ)mas | -omas | -yemas/īmas | -oyemas | -(ũ)mazu | -omazu | |
2S | -(ə)stazi | -estazi | -(ʔ)ēstazi | -(ə)stas | -estas | -istas/īstas | -oistas | -zos/sos/əzos | -ezos | |
3S | -(ə)tozi | -etozi | -(ʔ)ētozi | -(ə)tos | -etos | -itos/ītos | -oitos | -(ə)tozu | -etozu | |
1D | -(u)westas | -owestas | -(ʕ)ōwestas | -(u)weđas | -oweđas | -iweđas/īweđas | -oiweđas | -(u)weđazu | -oweđazu | |
2D | -(ə)tonstas | -etonstas | -(ʔ)ētonstas | -(ə)tonđas | -etonđas | -itonđas/ītonđas | -oitonđas | -(ə)tonđazu | -etonđazu | |
3D | -(ə)tānstas | -etānstas | -(ʔ)ētānstas | -(ə)tānđas | -etānđas | -itānđas/ītānđas | -oitānđas | -(ə)tānđazu | -etānđazu | |
1P | -(ũ)mestas | -omestas | -(ʕ)ōmestas | -(ũ)međas | -omeđas | -īmeđas/īmeđas | -oimeđas | -(ũ)međazu | -omeđazu | |
2P | -(ə)testas | -etestas | -(ʔ)ētestas | -(ə)teđas | -eteđas | -iteđas/īteđas | -oiteđas | -đwes/ŧwes/əđwes | -eđwes | |
3P | -ntozi/entozi | -ontozi | -(ʕ)ōntozi | -ntos/entos | -ontos | -yentos/īntos | -oyentos | -ntozu/entozu | -ontozu |
Future passive participle | -(ə)tos, -(ə)tom, -(ə)tā | -omnos, -omnom, -omnā | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Person/ Number |
Future indicative | Future subjunctive | Gnomic | Jussive | Simple imperative | |||||
1S | -(ũ)mar | -omar | -(ʕ)ōmar | -(ũ)ma | -oma | -yema/īma | -oyema | -(ũ)mau | -omau | |
2S | -(ə)star | -estar | -(ʔ)ēstar | -(ə)sta | -esta | -ista/īsta | -oista | -zo/so/əzo | -ezo | |
3S | -(ə)tor | -etor | -(ʔ)ētor | -(ə)to | -eto | -ito/īto | -oito | -(ə)tou | -etou | |
1D | -(u)westa | -owesta | -(ʕ)ōwesta | -(u)weđa | -oweđa | -iweđa/īweđa | -oiweđa | -(u)weđau | -oweđau | |
2D | -(ə)tonsta | -etonsta | -(ʔ)ētonsta | -(ə)tonđa | -etonđa | -itonđa/ītonđa | -oitonđa | -(ə)tonđau | -etonđau | |
3D | -(ə)tānsta | -etānsta | -(ʔ)ētānsta | -(ə)tānđa | -etānđa | -itānđa/ītānđa | -oitānđa | -(ə)tānđau | -etānđau | |
1P | -(ũ)mesta | -omesta | -(ʕ)ōmesta | -(ũ)međa | -omeđa | -īmeđa/īmeđa | -oimeđa | -(ũ)međau | -omeđau | |
2P | -(ə)testa | -etesta | -(ʔ)ētesta | -(ə)teđa | -eteđa | -iteđa/īteđa | -oiteđa | -đwe/ŧwe/əđwe | -eđwe | |
3P | -ntor/entor | -ontor | -(ʕ)ōntor | -nto/ento | -onto | -yento/īnto | -oyento | -ntou/entou | -ontou |
Notes:
- Phonemes in brackets are inserted after consonant clusters when phonotactically necessary (if a vowel) or after vowels (if a consonant).
- When two endings are given separated by a slash, they are used after vowels and after consonants respectively. If a third is also given, it is used after consonant clusters.
Forms based on the perfect stem
The following tenses are based on the perfect stem:
Form | Stem type |
---|---|
Perfect indicative | Mixed |
Perfect subjunctive | Strong |
Conditional | Weak |
Perfect participles | Weak |
The endings are as follows:
Perfect active participle | -(u)wōs, -(u)wos, -uzes, -uzī, -uzyās | ||
---|---|---|---|
Person/ Number |
Perfect indicative | Perfect subjunctive | Conditional |
1S | -(ħ)a | -(ʕ)ō | -yem/īm |
2S | -(ə)ta | -zi/ezi | -is/īs |
3S | -(ʔ)e | -ti/eti | -it/īt |
1D | -(u)we | -wes/owes | -iwe/īwe |
2D | -(ə)tom | -tons/etons | -itom/ītom |
3D | -(ə)tām | -tāns/etāns | -itām/ītām |
1P | -(ũ)me | -mes/omes | -ime/īme |
2P | -(ə)te | -tes/etes | -ite/īte |
3P | -nt/ent | -nti/onti | -yent/īnt |
IMP | -(ʔ)ēr | -ri/ori | -yer/īr |
Perfect passive participle | -mnos/umnos, -mnom/umnom, -mnā/umnā | ||
---|---|---|---|
Person/ Number |
Perfect indicative | Perfect subjunctive | Conditional |
1S | -(ũ)mas | -(ʕ)ōzi | -yemas/īmas |
2S | -(ə)stas | -stazi/estazi | -istas/īstas |
3S | -(ə)tos | -tozi/etozi | -itos/ītos |
1D | -(u)weđas | -westas/owestas | -iweđas/īweđas |
2D | -(ə)tonđas | -tonstas/etonstas | -itonđas/ītonđas |
3D | -(ə)tānđas | -tānstas/etānstas | -itānđas/ītānđas |
1P | -(ũ)međas | -mestas/omestas | -imeđas/īmeđas |
2P | -(ə)teđas | -testas/etestas | -iteđas/īteđas |
3P | -ntos/entos | -ntozi/ontozi | -yentos/īntos |
Perfect passive participle | -(ə)tos, -(ə)tom, -(ə)tā | ||
---|---|---|---|
Person/ Number |
Perfect indicative | Perfect subjunctive | Conditional |
1S | -(ũ)ma | -(ʕ)ōr | -yema/īma |
2S | -(ə)sta | -star/estar | -ista/īsta |
3S | -(ə)to | -tor/etor | -ito/īto |
1D | -(u)weđa | -westa/owesta | -iweđa/īweđa |
2D | -(ə)tonđa | -tonsta/etonsta | -itonđa/ītonđa |
3D | -(ə)tānđa | -tānsta/etānsta | -itānđa/ītānđa |
1P | -(ũ)međa | -mesta/omesta | -imeđa/īmeđa |
2P | -(ə)teđa | -testa/etesta | -iteđa/īteđa |
3P | -nto/ento | -ntor/ontor | -yento/īnto |
Notes:
- Phonemes in brackets are inserted after consonant clusters when phonotactically necessary (if a vowel) or after vowels (if a consonant).
- When two endings are given separated by a slash, they are used after vowels and after consonants respectively. If a third is also given, it is used after consonant clusters.
Forms based on the neutral stem
All forms based on the neutral stem are non-finite.
Form | Stem type | Ending | Usage | Example | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abstract noun (feminine) | Mixed | -(ə)tis, -(ə)teis | -etis, -eteis | Denotes an abstract state of the verb being performed or having been performed. It can also have meanings extended from this. | dṓtis, dotéis "givingness, generosity"; fū́tis, fūtéis "existence, essence, being, nature"; méntis, mə̃téis "thinkingness, rationality; thought"; féretis, féreteis "state of carrying/being carried" |
Action noun (masculine) | Mixed | -(ə)tus, -(ə)teus | -etus, -eteus | Denotes an action/state, similar to the English gerund. It can also have secondary meanings extended from this. | dṓtus, dotéus "(the act of) giving"; fū́tus, fūtéus "(the act of) becoming"; féretus, féreteus "(the act of) carrying"; méntus, mə̃téus "(the act of) thinking"; jéustus, justéus "(the act of) tasting; taste" |
Instance noun (feminine) | Weak | -(ə)twā, -(ə)twās | -etwā, -etwās | Denotes an instance of an action/state | dotwā́, dotwā́s "an instance of giving"; fūtwā́, -s "an instance of being/becoming/coming into being"; mə̃twā́, -s "an instance of thinking; an individual thought"; féretwā, -s "an instance of carrying" |
Stative participle | Weak | -(ə)nos, -(ə)nom, -(ə)nā | -enos, -enom, -enā | Describes someone/something that is in a state resulting from an action being performed, with an implication of a lack of volition/agency. | donós, -óm, -ā́ "(having been) given (something)"; fūnós, -óm, -ā́ "existing"; férenos, -om, -ā "carried" |
Agent noun (masc.) | Weak | -(ə)tēr, -(ə)teres, -tres | -etēr, -eteres, -etres | Denotes the masculine performer of an action (where the verb would be expressed in the active voice). | dotḗr, dotéres, dotrés "giver (m.)"; fūtḗr, fūtéres, fūtrés "he who becomes/is (something)"; féretēr, -teres, -tres "carrier (m.)" |
Agent noun (fem.) | Weak | -(ə)trī, -(ə)təryās | -etrī, -təryās | The feminine equivalent of the masculine agent noun. | dotrī́, dotəryā́s "giver (f.)"; fūtrī́, fūtəryā́s "she who becomes/is (something)"; féretrī, -təryās "carrier (f.)" |
Agent noun (neut.) | Mixed | -(ə)tər, -(ə)tōr, -tres | -etər, -etōr, -etres | The neuter equivalent of the masculine agent noun. | dṓtər, dṓtōr, dotrés "that which gives"; fū́tər, fū́tōr, fūtrés "that which becomes/is (something)"; féretər, féretōr, féretres "that which carries; vehicle" |
Patient noun (masc.) | Weak | -(ũ)mēn, -(ũ)menes, -mnes/ũnes | -omēn, -omenes, -omnes | Denotes the masculine patient an action is performed on or, equivalently, the "doer" of a middle- or passive-voice verb. | domḗn, -ménes, -mnés "he who is given (to someone)"; fūmḗn, -ménes, -mnés "he who exists; male being"; féromēn, -menes, -mnes "he who is carried" |
Patient noun (fem.) | Weak | -mnī/ũnī, -mnyās/ũnyās | -omnī, -omnyās | The feminine equivalent of the masculine patient noun. | domnī́, -mnyā́s "she who is given (to someone)"; fūmnī́, fūmnyā́s "she who exists; female being"; féromnī, -mnyās "she who is carried" |
Patient noun (neut.) | Mixed | -(ũ)mə̃, -(ũ)mōn, -mnes/ũnes | -omə̃, -omōn, -omnes | The neuter equivalent of the masculine patient noun. | dṓmə̃, dṓmōn, domnés "that which is given (to someone)"; fū́mə̃, fū́mōn, fūmnés "that which is; thing"; ménmə̃, ménmōn, mə̃mnés "that which is thought; belief, understanding"; féromə̃, -mōn, -mnes "that which is carried" |
Notes:
- In non-finite forms, "mixed" stem means that the strong stem is used in the nominative, vocative, and accusative, and the weak stem is used in other cases.
- The forms in the above table can be formed from any verb and have predictable meaning (although there may be unpredictable secondary meanings). Besides the above forms, there are many other nouns and adjectives that can be derived from verbs through various suffixes. However, they may not apply to all verbs and the meanings are often unpredictable.
Special verbs
- Deponent verbs: These verbs take passive forms despite being active in meaning.
- The verb "to be":
- In the passive, it means "to exist".
- In the middle, it means "to become, to make oneself" or, by extension, "to act as" or even "to pretend to be".
- Forms based on the non-present stems usually have an inchoative meaning (i.e."to become").
Particles
Adverbs
Nominal Adverbs
Nominal adverbs are adverbs that are transparently derived from nouns or adjectives.
They may be derived from any case other than the nominative and vocative, or through the use of other suffixes.
Primary adverbs
These are adverbs that are not transparently derived from nouns or adjectives.
Postpositions
Conjunctions
- -qe "and"
- Joins nominals, following every word being joined except the first. For extra emphasis, it can also follow the first word.
- ħau "and"
- Joins clauses.
- -wē "or"
- Takes the same position as -qe.
Syntax
Constituent order
Word order is free, but the default/unmarked order is SOV.
Noun phrase
Modifiers precede the noun by default, but they can alternatively follow the noun.