Plevian

Plevian (native: pleviano, sa dengua pleviana) is an Italic language descended from Old Latin.

Plevian
sa dengua pleviana
Pronunciation	[sa ˈdeŋɡwa pleˈvjana]
Created by	Shariifka
Language family	Indo-European Italic Latin Plevian
Early forms	Old Latin Old Plevian

Phonology

Orthography

Plevian orthography

Grapheme	Environment	IPA	Remarks
a	everywhere	a
b	everywhere	b	May be pronounced [β] between vowels.
c	before ⟨e⟩, ⟨y⟩, or vocalic ⟨i⟩	tʃ
	before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩; before a consonant; word-finally	k
ch	before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩	k
ci	before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩, or ⟨e⟩	tʃ
	otherwise	tʃi
cj	before a consonant; word-finally	tʃ
d	everywhere	d	May be pronounced [ð] between vowels.
dz	everywhere	dz
e	everywhere	e
f	everywhere	f
g	before ⟨e⟩, ⟨y⟩, or vocalic ⟨i⟩	dʒ	May be pronounced [ʒ] between vowels.
	before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩; before a consonant; word-finally	ɡ	May be pronounced [ɣ] between vowels.
gh	before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩	ɡ	May be pronounced [ɣ] between vowels.
gi	before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩, or ⟨e⟩	dʒ	May be pronounced [ʒ] between vowels.
	otherwise	dʒi
gj	before a consonant; word-finally	dʒ	May be pronounced [β] after vowels.
gu	before vowels	ɡw	May be pronounced [w] between vowels.
	otherwise	ɡu
h	all	χ
i	before vowels	j
	otherwise	i
j	everywhere	j
k	in loanwords	k
l	everywhere	l
li	before vowels	ʎ
	otherwise	li
m	everywhere	m
n	everywhere	n
ni	before vowels	ɲ
	otherwise	ni
o	everywhere	o
p	everywhere	p
qu	everywhere	kw
r	everywhere	r
s	between vowels; before voiced consonants	z
	otherwise	s	The combination /stʃ/ is often pronounced /ʃː/.
t	everywhere	t
u	before vowels	w	After a consonant, usually pronounced as labialization [ʷ].
	otherwise	u
v	everywhere	v
w	in loanwords	ɡw	May be pronounced [w] between vowels.
x	before vowels; before voiced consonants	ʒ
	otherwise	ʃ
xi	between vowels	ʒ
	before vowels otherwise	ʃ
	between consonants; word-finally after a consonant	ʃi
	otherwise	ʒi
y	in loanwords before vowels	j
	in loanwords otherwise	i
z	everywhere	ts

Consonants

Plevian consonant phonemes

		Labial	Alveolar	Postalveolar/ Palatal	Velar/ Guttural
Nasal		m	n	(ɲ)1	(ŋ)2
Stop	voiceless	p	t		k
	voiced	b	d		ɡ
Affricate	voiceless		ts	tʃ
	voiced		dz	dʒ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	ʃ	χ
	voiced	v	(z)3	(ʒ)3
Approximant				j	w
Lateral			l	(ʎ)1
Trill			r

Notes:

¹ [ɲ] and [ʎ] are surface realizations of underlying /nj/ and /lj/ respectively.

² [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars.

³ [z] and [ʒ] are allophones of /s/ and /ʃ/ respectively between vowels and before voiced sounds.

⁴ Most consonants can be labialized and/or palatalized. However, these are considered to be sequences of consonant + /w/ or /j/ respectively.

Vowels

Plevian monophthong vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i		u
Mid	e		o
Open		a

In addition to the monopthongs above, the following diphthongs are possible:

• Rising: ia, ie, io, iu, ua, ue, uo, ui
• Falling: ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou

The most common diphthongs are ia, ua, ue, and io. Additionally, ui is common after /k/ and /ɡ/. The remaining diphthongs are rare.

Note that the glide in falling diphthings is usually realized as palatalization (in the case of -i-) or labialization (in the case of -u-).

Morphophonology

Epenthetic consonants

When a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word beginning in a vowel, an epenthetic consonant is usually inserted.

In the case of nouns and adjectives, the consonant used is -n.

Third person plural verbs, while not ending in a vowel, take an epenthetic -t before vowel-initial words.

Other words can have varying epenthetic consonants (such as -n, -d, -b, -g, -t, etc.), which must be memorized.

Examples:

• a "to" + America > ad America
• da "away from, out lf" + America > dab America
• femna "woman" + alta "tall" > femnan alta
• ama "(s)he loves" + arbrex "trees" > amad arbrex
• aman "they love" + arbrex > amant arbrex

Counter-examples:

• de "of, from" + America > de America
• amo "I love" + arbrex "trees" > amo arbrex

Syntactic gemination

Certain pronouns and particles cause the first consonant of a following consonant-initial word to geminate.

In most cases, these are the same words that add an epenthetic -d, -g, or -b when the following word begins in a vowel.

Examples:

• a "to" + Canada > a cCanada
• da "away from, out of" + Canada > da cCanada
• ama "(s)he loves" + carne "meat" > ama ccarne

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns may be masculine or feminine.

Nouns are pluralized in -x. After a consonant, this ending becomes -ex.

Nouns ending in a vowel add an epenthetic -n when followed by a word beginning in a vowel.

Adjectives

Adjectives agree with the noun they govern in gender and number.

Adjectives whose masculine forms end in -o are feminized in -a. Otherwise, the masculine and feminine forms are identical. Adjectives ending in a vowel add an epenthetic -n when immediately followed by a vowel.

Like nouns, adjectives are pluralized in -(e)x.

Articles

Articles precede the noun they govern and agree with it in gender and number.

The definite article is so, declined as below:

	Singular	Plural
Masculine	so(n)	sox
Feminine	sa(n)	sax

Notes:

¹ -n is added before words beginning in vowels.

The indefinite article is gueno, declined as below:

	Singular	Plural
Masculine	guen(o)1	guenox
Feminine	guen(a)2	guenax

Notes:

¹ -o is added before words beginning in consonant clusters.

² -a is dropped before words beginning in vowels.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Person/ Number	Subject	Object	Clitic object		Possessive
			Direct	Indirect	Weak	Strong
1S	mu	me	me(n)	me(d/G)	mo(n)	mexxo
2S	tu	te	te(n)	te(d/G)	to(n)	texxo
3SM	gio	gio	gio(n)	gio(d/G)	gio(n)	gioxxo
3SF	gia	gia	gia(n)	gia(d/G)	gia(n)	giaxxo
3R	su	se	se(n)	se(d/G)	so(n)	siaxxo
1P	nox	nox	nox	nox	nox	nuastro
2P	gox	gox	gox	gox	gox	guastro
3PM	giox	giox	giox	giox	giox	gioro
3PF	giax	giax	giax	giax	giax	giaro

Verbs

Verb classes

There are five verb classes:

1. -are verbs (class 1)
2. -ere verbs (class 2)
3. Non-palatalized -re verbs (class 3)
4. Palatalized -re verbs (class 4)
5. -ire verbs (class 5)

Present indicative

Class	1	2	3	4	5
1S	-o	-io	-o	-io	-io
2S	-ax	-ex	-ex	-ix	-ix
3S	-a(d/G)	-e(d/G)	-e(d/G)	-i(d/G)	-i(d/G)
1P	-amox	-emox	-mox	-mox	-imox
2P	-atex	-etex	-tex	-tex	-itex
3P	-an(t)	-en(t)	-on(t)	-ion(t)	-ion(t)

Notes:

1. Class 2, 4, and 5 verbs whose stems end in labialized consonants lose the labialization in the 1S and (in the case of Class 4 & 5 verbs) the 3P. Additionally, Class 4 & 5 verbs whose stems end in coronal consonants undergo stem changes in these forms:

Expected	Changed to
ti	z
di	dz
si	x
zi	ci

1. Verbs whose stem end in velar stops (-c- or -g-) maintain their spelling throughout the present indicative regardless of whether that would result in a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation. On the other hand, verbs whose stem ends in -ch- or -gh- drop the -h- when they are not followed by front vowels.

Present subjunctive

The present subjunctive is formed by removing -o from the 1S present indicative and adding the following endings:

Class	1	Others
1S	-e(n)	-a(n)
2S	-ex	-ax
3S	-e(d/G)	-a(d/G)
1P	-emox	-amox
2P	-etex	-atex
3P	-en(t)	-an(t)

Class 1 verbs whose stems end in a velar stop maintain their lack of palatalization in the present subjunctive.

Imperfect indicative

The imperfect stem is formed by removing -o or (only for Class 2 verbs) -io from the 1S present indicative and adding the following endings:

Class	1	Others
1S	-ava(n)	-eva(n)
2S	-avax	-evax
3S	-ava(d/G)	-eva(d/G)
1P	-avamox	-evamox
2P	-avatex	-evatex
3P	-avan(t)	-evan(t)

Imperfect subjunctive

The imperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the verb's infinitive:

Class	All
1S	-(n)
2S	-x
3S	-(d/G)
1P	-mox
2P	-tex
3P	-n(t)

Future

The future is formed by adding the following endings to the imperfect stem:

Class	1	Others
1S	-avo	-evo
2S	-avex	-evex
3S	-ave(d/G)	-eve(d/G)
1P	-ammox	-emmox
2P	-aptex	-eptex
3P	-avon(t)	-evon(t)

Future perfect

The future perfect is formed by adding the following endings to the infinitive stem with -re removed:

Class	1, 2, 5	3, 4
1S	-sso	-so
2S	-ssex	-sex
3S	-sse(d/G)	-se(d/G)
1P	-ssemox	-semox
2P	-ssetex	-setex
3P	-ssen(t)	-sen(t)

Perfect indicative

The perfect indicative is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

	All classes
1S	-e
2S	-este
3S	-e(d/G)
1P	-mox
2P	-estex
3P	-ron(t)

The perfect stem is derived from the present stem in different ways depending on the verb.

• Regular Class 1 & 5 verbs form it by adding -g(h)- (always hard) to the infinitive minus -re.
• Regular Class 2, 3, and 4 verbs form it by adding -ug(h)- to the present stem.
• There are many irregular verbs, especially in classes 2-4 (and sometimes 5). The only irregular class 1 verbs are dare "to give" and stare "to stand, stop".

Perfect subjunctive

The perfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

	All classes
1S	-re(n)
2S	-rex
3S	-re(d/G)
1P	-remox
2P	-retex
3P	-ren(t)

Pluperfect indicative

The pluperfect indicative is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

	All classes
1S	-ra(n)
2S	-rax
3S	-ra(d/G)
1P	-ramox
2P	-ratex
3P	-ran(t)

Pluperfect subjunctive

The pluperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

	All classes
1S	-esse(n)
2S	-essex
3S	-esse(d/G)
1P	-essemox
2P	-essetex
3P	-essen(t)

Imperative

The imperative is formed by removing -x from the corresponding second person present indicative. This applies both in the singular and plural.

Participles

The following participles exist:

Participle	Formation	Remarks
Present participle	Formed by removing -va(n) from the 1S imperfect indicative and adding -nte(n).
Past participle	Regularly formed by removing -re from the infinitive and adding -to(n) (m.)/-ta(n) (f.).	Many verbs have an irregular past participle.
Future participle	Formed by removing final vowel (-o/a) of the past participle and adding -uro(n) (m.)/-ura(n) (f.).	Means "about to X".
Gerundive	Formed by removing -n(t) from the 3P present indicative and adding -ndo(n) (m.)/-nda(n) (f.)	Roughly equivalent to the suffix "-able" in English. Depending on the verb, it may have active or passive meaning.

Irregular verbs

esse "to be"

Infinitive			esse
Present participle			sente(n)
Past participle			foto(n)/fota(n)
Future participle			foturo(n)/fotura(n)
Gerundive			sondo(n)/sonda(n)
	Indicative						Subjunctive				Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Future	Future perfect	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect
1S	so(n)	era(n)	foghe	essa(n)	ero	fuaro	fúa(n)	esse(n)	fogre(n)	foghesse(n)
2S	ex	erax	fogheste	essax	erex	fuarex	fúax	essex	fogrex	foghessex	e
3S	e(t)	era(d/G)	foghe(d/G)	essa(d/G)	ere(d/G)	fuare(d/G)	fúa(d/G)	esse(d/G)	fogre(d/G)	foghesse(d/G)
1P	somox	eramox	fogmox	essamox	ermox	fuarmox	fuamox	essemox	fogremox	foghessemox
2P	estex	eratex	foghestex	essatex	ertex	fuartex	fuatex	essetex	fogretex	foghessetex	este
3P	son(t)	eran(t)	fogron(t)	essan(t)	eron(t)	fuaren(t)	fúan(t)	essen(t)	fogren(t)	foghessen(t)

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Guabrix xiamnex nascon luebrox ed equox en decretaten e ggiorex. Son dotatox de razonen e cconscienza, e ddevont agre seco ffratrex.

/ˈɡwabriʃ ˈʃamneʃ ˈnaskon ˈlwebroʃ ed ekwoʃ en ˌdekreˈtaten e ˈdʒːoreʃ ‖ son doˈtatoʃ de raˈtsonen e kːonˈstʃentsa | e ˈdːevont ˈaɡre ˈseko ˈfːratreʃ/

[ˈɡʷaː.briʃ ˈʃam.neʒ ˈnas.kon ˈlʷeː.bro.ʃ‿eˈð‿eː.kʷo.ʒ‿en ˌde.kɾe.ˈtaː.te.n‿e‿dʒ.ˈʒoː.reʃ ‖ son do.ˈtaː.toʒ de ra.ˈtsoː.ne.n‿e‿k.kon.ˈʃːen.tsa | e‿d.ˈdeː.von.ˈt‿aː.ɡɾe ˈseː.ko‿f.ˈfɾaː.tɾeʃ]