Togarmite

Togarmite
Þėgamiþ
Pronunciation	[/θegamiθ/]
Created by	IlL
Setting	Lõis
Language family	Afro-Asiatic North Semitic (Togarmo-Canaanite) Togarmite

Togarmite (Þėgamiþ /θegamiθ/ or lysėnyn þėgamijyn /ˈləsenən θegamijən/) is a Semitic language closely related to Hebrew and Knánith. It is inspired by Lithuanian, Germanic languages (particularly Icelandic) and the Semitic conlang Alashian.

Modern Togarmite retains the Semitic root-and-pattern morphology and binyanim of Old Togarmite, but has undergone some grammatical restructuring, taking features of the Turkey-Northern Levant-Iranian sprachbund, with L-Persian, Modern An Bhlaoighne and English:

• loss of grammatical gender
• loss of the passive binyanim
• loss of the suffix conjugation except in a few verbs
• the use of the w-form (inherited from the Old Togarmite waw-consecutive future) for the present progressive, mirroring English -ing < PIE *-nd-kwe

Todo

• gdėl = big
• makdas = (formal, mathematics) specific, particular, chosen (not arbitrary)
• Kabšyn wy frasel /xabʃən və fɾasel/ = The sheep and the horses

History

The Old Togarmite name for the language, Θėgammīθ, is thought to have been borrowed from a pre-Togarmite source *Tāgarma. The name Togarmah from the same source is also attested in the Hebrew Bible. (The Greeks and the Romans called the Togarmite people Θηγαρμικοί and Thegarmici respectively.) The name of the language shows the most striking feature of Togarmite, the shift of Proto-Semitic ā to ė /e:/, mirroring the Canaanite shift ā > [o:] occuring in its close relative Hebrew.

Phonology

Consonants

Togarmite has 23 consonants, 22 of them inherited from Proto-Semitic. It gained /p/ during the Old Togarmite stage from adapting loans from Greek, Aramaic and Persian, e.g. parkes 'to act', from Ancient Greek praxis.

• m n /m n/
• p t c k ' /p t ts k ʔ/
• b d g /b d g/
• f þ s š x h /f θ s ʃ x h/
• w z ž ȝ /v z ʒ ɣ/
• l r j /l r j/

Vowels

Modern Togarmite has 9 vowels in stressed syllables, possibly the largest vowel inventory of any Semitic language.

a e ė i o ø u y /ɑ ɛ e i o ø u (ə)/

ai au /ai øy/

ai and au are often merged to /e ø/. Some dialects pronounce au as /y/.

Stress

Stress is always penultimate.

Orthography

Togarmite uses an abugida based on the Phoenician alphabet, called albėþyn (after the first 2 letters).

The abjadi letter names: al, bėþ, gam, dal, hė, wau, zėn, žėn, tėþ, jød, xaf, lam, mėm, nun, ȝėn, fė, pė, cad, køf, rėš, sin, šin, þau

Pronouns

Personal

Modern Togarmite pronouns work very similarly to English pronouns. The accusative pronouns derive from inflected foms of Old Togarmite ʔiþ- (emphasis particle and accusative, related to Hebrew et and Arabic iyya-). The possessive pronouns are derived from inflected forms of Old Togarmite li.

	I	thou (m.)	thou (f.)	he	she	it	we	you (pl.)	they
Nominative/Conjunctive	nėx	aþ	eþ	hu	hi	že	nan	aþøm	høm
Objective/Disjunctive	þi	þax	þex	þau	þa	þež	þanė	þaxøm	þaum
Possessive	li	lax	lex	lau	la	lež	lanė	laxøm	laum
Reflexive/Intensive	afi	afax	afex	afau	afa	afež	afnė	afxøm	afaum

The plural pronouns aþøm and høm can be used as gender-neutral pronouns in the singular, like English they.

Demonstrative

	who?	what?	which?	where?	whither?	whence?	when?	how?	why?	how much?
this	ži (sg); eli (pl)			hen	heno	me hen	ȝeþyn	xen; xamxė	ȝalxė; me hen	xėrab
that	žix (sg); elix (pl)			šam	šamo	me šam	ež
what	mi	ma	ėjo	ain	aino	men ain	møran	xaix	lama	xma
all; every	xøl bašar; xølhad	xøl dbar	xøl (each; every)	xøl mykėm	ly xøl mykėm	me xøl mykėm	xlėþ, xøl jømin	xølad darxy	-	-
any	nux bašar	nux dbar	nux	nux mykėm	ly nux mykėm	me nux mykėm	xlėþ	nux darxy	my nux sebt	-
some	bil bašar	bil dbar	bil	bil mykėm	ly bil mykėm	me bil mykėm	ly zman; bil zman	bil darxy	my bil sebt	-
none	lėm bašar	lėm dbar	lėm	lėm mykėm	ly lėm mykėm	me lėm mykėm	lėfȝam	lėm darxy	my lėm sebt	-

Demonstratives come before nouns as in Arabic:

• ži baiþyn 'this house'
• eli baiþil 'these houses'

Nouns

In some ways declension has simplified: Like Knánith, Modern Togarmite has lost grammatical gender. Nouns and adjectives still have indefinite and definite states, but the construct state has been lost.

However, declension has become more complicated in other ways. For example, Modern Togarmite has innovated more declension paradigms.

Regular declension

Most nouns have a regular plural in -i, definite -il.

Example: ȝėlam 'world'

Regular noun declension

	singular	plural
indefinite	ȝėlam	ȝėlami
definite	ȝėlamyn	ȝėlamil

Nisba nouns

An important declension class is comprised of nouns or adjectives with the nisba suffix -i:

þėgami 'Togarmite'

	singular	plural
indefinite	þėgami	þėgamije
definite	þėgamijyn	þėgamijel

Singulative-collective nouns

These nouns have a marked singular in -t.

šeȝart '(strand of) hair'

	singular	plural
indefinite	šeȝart	šeȝar
definite	šeȝartyn	šeȝaril

Former feminines/body parts

This class consists of a small number of nouns that were feminine in Old Togarmite, such as many body parts, which take a plural in -ėþ:

øžny 'ear'

	singular	plural
indefinite	øžny	øžnė
definite	øžnyn	øžnėþil

lysėn 'tongue; language'

	singular	plural
indefinite	lysėn	lysėnėþ
definite	lysėnyn	lysėnėþil

-a nouns

These are mainly Greek words:

apoloža 'excuse (pretext)'

	singular	plural
indefinite	apoloža	apoložes
definite	apoložan	apoložėþil

Greek ending in -ma can have a plural in -mata:

þėma 'topic'

	singular	plural
indefinite	þėma	þėmes / þėmata
definite	þėman	þėmėþil / þėmataþil

By analogy, even some native words are declined this way:

heta 'sin'

	singular	plural
indefinite	heta	hetes
definite	hetan	hetėþil

Adjectives

Adjectives have the same declension patterns as nouns.

Degree

Adjectives do not have separate degree forms, unlike in Indo-European languages. A dedicated particle brėþ (*bi-raʔēθī yuθ- 'when-see.INF-1SG ACC') is used for 'than', however.

Verbs

• Past = prefix conjugation (from the PSem preterite)
• Present = from the Proto-Semitic L-stem, via analogy
• Imperative
  • The negative imperative is formed with al + 2nd person past tense: xþøb 'write! (singular)', al tyxþøb! 'don't write! (singular)'
• w-form = w + stem from the 3ms suffix conjugation in the f3al binyan, past tense but with w- for the prefix in other binyanim
• Infinitive
• Participles

The suffix conjugation does not survive unlike in most other Semitic languages, except in certain irregular verbs like hwė 'to be'.

The citation form is the 2nd person singular imperative.

Binyanim

Binyan 1: fȝøl

This binyan can take -ø-, -e- or -a- as the theme vowel.

Binyan 1 conjugation: xþøb 'write'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	nėx yxþøb	aþ/eþ yxþøb	hu/hi xþøb	nan xþøb	aþøm xþøb	høm xþøb
past progressive; past subjunctive	fiti wyxþab	fit wyxþab	fė wyxþab	finė wnyxþøb	fitøm wtyxþøbu	fu wėxþøbu
present	nėx yxėþøb	aþ/eþ yxėþøb	hu/hi xėþøb	nan xėþøb	aþøm xėþøb	høm xėþøb
present progressive	nėx še wyxþab	aþ/eþ še wyxþab	hu/hi še wyxþab	nan še wyxþab	aþøm šu wyxþab	høm šu wyxþab
present subjunctive	nėx yxþøban	aþ/eþ yxþøban	hu/hi xþøban	nan xþøban	aþøm xþøbun	høm xþøbun
future	ėbe xþėb	tėbe xþėb	jėbe xþėb	nėbe xþėb	tėbu xþėb	jėbu xþėb
perfect	li myxþub	lax/lex myxþub	lau/la myxþub	lanė myxþub	laxøm myxþub	laum myxþub
imperative	xþøb!
active participle	xėþeb			xėþebi
passive participle	myxþub			myxþubi
w-form	wyxþab
infinitive	xþėb

Binyan 2: faȝel

This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic D-stem (related to Hebrew pi33el and Arabic fa33ala)

Binyan 2 conjugation: saxen 'inhabit'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	nėx ysaxen	aþ/eþ ysaxen	hu/hi saxen	nan saxen	aþøm saxen	høm saxen
past progressive; past subjunctive	fiti wysaxen	fit wysaxen	fė wysaxen	finė wysaxen	fitøm wysaxen	fu wysaxen
present	nėx ysxėxen	aþ/eþ ysxėxen	hu/hi sxėxen	nan sxėxen	aþøm sxėxen	høm sxėxen
present progressive	nėx še wysaxen	aþ/eþ še wysaxen	hu/hi še wysaxen	nan še wysaxen	aþøm šu wysaxen	høm šu wysaxen
present subjunctive	ani ysaxenan	aþ/eþ ysaxenan	hu/hi saxenan	nan saxenan	aþøm saxenun	høm saxenun
future	ėbe saxun	tėbe saxun	jėbe saxun	nėbe saxun	tėbu saxun	jėbu saxun
perfect	li møsaxan	lax/lex møsaxan	lau/la møsaxan	lanė møsaxan	laxøm møsaxan	laum møsaxan
imperative	saxen!
active participle	møsaxen			møsaxeni
passive participle	møsaxan			møsaxani
w-form	wysaxen
infinitive	saxun

For 4-letter verbs such as parkes 'to act', the present tense is formed with the stem -C₁C₂ėC₃eC₄, like nėx yprėkes 'I act'.

Binyan 3: afȝel

This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic Š-stems thus corresponds to Hebrew hif3il and Arabic ʔaf3ala.

Binyan 3 conjugation: ažxer 'remind'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	nėx ažxer	aþ/eþ ažxer	hu/hi ažxer	nan ažxer	aþøm ažxer	høm ažxer
past progressive; past subjunctive	fiti wažxer	fit wažxer	fė wažxer	finė wažxer	fitøm wažxer	fu wažxer
present	nėx ažėxer	aþ/eþ ažėxer	hu/hi ažėxer	nan ažėxer	aþøm ažėxeru	høm ažėxeru
present progressive	nėx še wažxer	aþ/eþ še wažxer	hu/hi še wažxer	nan še wažxer	aþøm šu wažxer	høm šu wažxer
present subjunctive	nėx ažxeran	aþ/eþ ažxeran	hu/hi ažxeran	nan ažxeran	aþøm ažxerun	høm ažxerun
future	ėbe hažxur	tėbe hažxur	jėbe hažxur	nėbe hažxur	tėbu hažxur	jėbu hažxur
perfect	li mažxar	lax/lex mažxar	lau/la mažxar	lanė mažxar	laxøm mažxar	laum mažxar
imperative	ažxer!
active participle	mažxer			mažxeri
passive participle	mažxar			mažxari
w-form	wažxer
infinitive	ažxur

Binyan 4: yftyȝel

This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic t-stem and shares similarities with the Hebrew binyan hitpa33el and Arabic ifta3ala. It is characterized by the þ- prefix that comes from the *t infix.

Meanings:

• reflexive
• reciprocal

The prefix þ metathesizes with C1 when

• C1 = f x s š c h z ž ȝ: þf þx þs þš þh þz þž þȝ > ft xt st št ct ht zd žd ȝd
• C1 = d t þ: þd þt þþ > d t þ

Binyan 4 conjugation: hyþlymed 'find one's way around'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	nėx yþlymed	aþ/eþ yþlymed	hu/hi þlymed	nan þlymed	aþøm þlymed	høm þlymed
past progressive; past subjunctive	fiti wyþlymed	fit wyþlymed	fė wyþlymed	finė wyþlymed	fitøm wyþlymed	fu wyþlymed
present	nėx yþlėmed	aþ/eþ yþlėmed	hu/hi þlėmed	nan þlėmed	aþøm þlėmed	høm þlėmed
present progressive	nėx še wyþlymed	aþ/eþ še wyþlymed	hu/hi še wyþlymed	nan še wyþlymed	aþøm šu wyþlymed	høm šu wyþlymed
present subjunctive	nėx yþlymedan	aþ/eþ yþlymedan	hu/hi þlymedan	nan þlymedan	aþøm þlymedun	høm þlymedun
future	ėbe hyþlymud	tėbe hyþlymud	jėbe hyþlymud	nėbe hyþlymud	tėbu hyþlymud	jėbu hyþlymud
perfect	li møþlymad	lax/lex møþlymad	lau/la møþlymad	lanė møþlymad	laxøm møþlymad	laum møþlymad
imperative	yþlymed!
active participle	møþlymed			møþlymedi
passive participle	møþlymad			møþlymadi
w-form	wyþlymėd
infinitive	hyþlymud

Binyan 5: þyfaȝel

This binyan comes from the tD-stem (t- with geminate stem) and corresponds directly to the Arabic binyan tafa33ala.

Meanings:

• reaction/back, re-
  • þy'awer 'to reflect', from aur 'light'
  • þyparkes 'to react', from parkis 'action'
  • þysalem 'to repay', from √s-l-m 'peace, whole'
• unpredictable change in meaning

Binyan 5 conjugation: þydares 'teach'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	nėx yþydares	aþ/eþ yþydares	hu/hi þydares	nan þydares	aþøm þydares	høm þydares
past progressive; past subjunctive	fiti wyþydares	fit wyþydares	fė wyþydares	finė wyþydares	fitøm wyþydares	fu wyþydares
present	nėx yþydrėres	aþ/eþ yþydrėres	hu/hi þydrėres	nan þydrėres	aþøm þydrėres	høm þydrėres
present progressive	nėx še wyþydares	aþ/eþ še wyþydares	hu/hi še wyþydares	nan še wyþydares	aþøm šu wyþydares	høm šu wyþydares
present subjunctive	nėx yþydaresan	aþ/eþ yþydaresan	hu/hi þydaresan	nan þydaresan	aþøm þydaresun	høm þydaresun
future	ėbe þydarus	tėbe þydarus	jėbe þydarus	nėbe þydarus	tėbu þydarus	jėbu þydarus
perfect	li møþydaras	lax/lex møþydaras	lau/la møþydaras	lanė møþydaras	laxøm møþydaras	laum møþydaras
imperative	þydares!
active participle	møþydares			møþydaresi
passive participle	møþydaras			møþydaresi
w-form	wyþydares
infinitive	þydarus

Binyan 6: heþyfȝel

This binyan comes from the Nt-stem, with the mediopassive n- marker and the reflexive/reciprocal t-marker: the stem comes from *intap3il. cf. Hebrew nitpa33el, a variant of the hitpa33el binyan and the Arabic infa3ala binyan.

Binyan 6 conjugation: heþygdel 'grow up'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	nėx eþygdel	aþ/eþ eþygdel	hu/hi eþygdel	nan eþygdel	aþøm eþygdelu	høm eþygdelu
past progressive; past subjunctive	fiti weþygdel	fit weþygdel	fė weþygdel	finė weþygdel	fitøm weþygdel	fu waþygdel
present	nėx eþygėdel	aþ/eþ eþygėdel	hu/hi eþygėdel	nan eþygėdel	aþøm eþygėdelu	høm eþygėdelu
present progressive	nėx še weþygdel	aþ/eþ še weþygdel	hu/hi še weþygdel	nan še weþygdel	aþøm šu weþygdel	høm šu weþygdel
present subjunctive	nėx eþygdelan	aþ/eþ eþygdelan	hu/hi eþygdelan	nan eþygdelan	aþøm eþygdelun	høm eþygdelun
future	ėbe heþygdul	tėbe heþygdul	jėbe heþygdul	nėbe heþygdul	tėbu heþygdul	jėbu heþygdul
perfect	li meþygdal	lax/lex meþygdal	lau/la meþygdal	lanė meþygdal	laxøm meþygdal	laum meþygdal
imperative	-	heþygdel!	-	-	heþygdelu!	-
active participle	meþygdel			meþygdeli
passive participle	meþygdal			meþygdali
w-form	waþygdel
infinitive	heþygdul

Binyan 7: styfȝel

This binyan comes from the Št-stem and is directly related to the binyan istaf3ala in Arabic and the very rare binyan hishtaf3el in Biblical Hebrew.

Binyan 7 conjugation: stytȝem 'try out'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	nėx ystytȝem	aþ/eþ ystytȝem	hu/hi stytȝem	nan stytȝem	aþøm stytȝem	høm stytȝem
past progressive; past subjunctive	fiti wystytȝem	fit wystytȝem	fė wystytȝem	finė wystytȝem	fitøm wystytȝem	fu wystytȝem
present	nėx ystytėȝem	aþ/eþ ystytėȝem	hu/hi stytėȝem	nan stytėȝem	aþøm stytėȝem	høm stytėȝem
present progressive	nėx še wystytȝem	aþ/eþ še wystytȝem	hu/hi še wystytȝem	nan še wystytȝem	aþøm šu wystytȝem	høm šu wystytȝem
present subjunctive	nėx ystytȝeman	aþ/eþ ystytȝeman	hu/hi stytȝeman	nan stytȝeman	aþøm stytȝemun	jystytȝemun
future	ėbe stytȝum	tėbe stytȝum	jėbe stytȝum	nėbe stytȝum	tėbu stytȝum	jėbu stytȝum
perfect	li møstytȝam	lax/lex møstytȝam	lau/la møstytȝam	lanė møstytȝam	laxøm møstytȝam	laum møstytȝam
imperative	-	stytȝem!	-	-	stytȝemu!	-
active participle	møstytȝem			møstytȝemi
passive participle	møstytȝam			møstytȝami
w-form	wystytȝem
infinitive	stytȝum

Concatenative verbs

The concatenative paradigm, analogous to Germanic weak verbs, is formed by adding prefixes and suffixes, without changing the stem. The past and imperative forms are formed by adding -i or -ji to the noun, when no other suffix is added.

It is used for recent loan verbs like maksimezi 'to maximize', but can also be used to derive verbs from native nouns:

• mydrasi 'to school' (from mydras 'school')
• þaxili 'to consume' (from þaxil 'consumption', itself from the root √ʔ-x-l 'to eat')
• žaxoji 'to entitle, to allow' (from žaxo 'right')
• ȝaini 'to eye' (from ȝain 'eye')

The endings are mainly derived from Middle Togarmite forms of 3-y verbs.

• [STEM]-i = active
• þy-[STEM]-i = re-
• mø- = active participle
• -ėþ = infinitive

Weak verb conjugation: mydrasi 'to school'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	nėx ymydrasi	aþ/eþ ymydrasi	hu/hi mydrasi	nan mydrasi	aþøm mydrasi	høm mydrasi
past progressive; past subjunctive	fiti wymydrasi	fit wymydrasi	fė wymydrasi	finė wymydrasi	fitøm wymydrasi	fu wymydrasi
present	nėx ymydrasė	aþ/eþ ymydrasė	hu/hi mydrasė	nan mydrasė	aþøm mydrasė	høm mydrasė
present progressive	yše wymydrasi	tyše wymydrasi	jyše wymydrasi	nyše wymydrasi	tyšu wymydrasi	jyšu wymydrasi
present subjunctive	nėx ymydrasan	aþ/eþ ymydrasan	hu/hi mydrasan	nan mydrasan	aþøm mydrasun	høm mydrasun
future	ėbe mydrasėþ	tėbe mydrasėþ	jėbe mydrasėþ	nėbe mydrasėþ	tėbu mydrasėþ	jėbu mydrasėþ
perfect	li mømydrasa	lax/lex mømydrasa	lau/la mømydrasa	lanė mømydrasa	laxøm mømydrasa	laum mømydrasa
imperative	mydrasi!
active participle	mømydrasė			mømydrasėji
passive participle	mømydrasa			mømydrasaji
w-form	wymydrasi
infinitive	mydrasėþ

fe 'to be'

The verb fė 'to be' is perhaps the most irregular verb of the language; it displays suppletion and it uses the Proto-Semitic suffix conjugation in the past tense.

fe 'to be'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	fiti	fit	fė	finė	fitøm	fu
past progressive; past subjunctive	fiti wyfė	fit wyfė	fė wyfė	finė wyfė	fitøm wyfė	fu wyfė
present	nėx še (or nėx)	aþ/eþ še (or aþ/eþ)	hu/hi še (or hu/hi)	nan še (or nan)	aþøm šu (or aþøm)	høm šu (or høm)
present progressive	yše wyfė	tyše wyfė	jyše wyfė	nyše wyfė	tyšu wyfė	jyšu wyfė
present subjunctive	yfijan	tyfijan	jyfijan	nyfijan	tyfijun	jyfijun
future	ėbe fėþ	tėbe fėþ	jėbe fėþ	nėbe fėþ	tėbu fėþ	jėbu fėþ
imperative	-	fe!	-	-	fu!	-
active participle	hėwė			hėwėji
passive participle	myfuj			myfuji
w-form	wyfė
infinitive	fėþ

xėl 'can'

xėl 'can'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	uxal	tuxal	juxal	nuxal	tuxalu	juxalu
past subjunctive	fiti wėxel	fit wėxel	fė wėxel	finė wėxel	fitøm wėxel	fu wėxel
present	nėx wyxėl	aþ/eþ wyxėl	hu/hi wyxėl	nan wyxėl	aþøm wyxėl	høm wyxėl
present subjunctive	nėx xelan	aþ/eþ xelan	hu/hi xelan	nan xelan	aþøm xelun	høm xelun
future	ėbe xėl	tėbe xėl	jėbe xėl	nėbe xėl	tėbu xėl	jėbu xėl
active participle	-			-
passive participle	myhwuj wėxel			myhwuji wėxel
infinitive	xėl

høbė 'should; ought'

høba 'should; ought'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
present	høbiti	høbit	høbė	høbinė	høbitøm	høbu

ryšė 'to want'

ryšė 'to want'

→ Person ↓ Tense	1sg	2sg	3sg	1pl	2pl	3pl
past; conditional	yrši	tyrši	jyrši	nyrši	tyršu	jyršu
past subjunctive	hwiti wyrši	hwit wyrši	hwė wyrši	hwinė wyrši	hwitøm wyrši	hwu wyrši
present	ryšiti	ryšit	ryšė	ryšinė	ryšitøm	ryšu
future	ėbe ryšėþ	tėbe ryšėþ	jėbe ryšėþ	nėbe ryšėþ	tėbu ryšėþ	jėbu ryšėþ
w-form	wyrši
active participle	-			-
passive participle	ryšuj			ryšuj
infinitive	ryšėþ

Gzarot

Main article: Togarmite/Gzarot

In Semitic languages, gzarot (Hebrew, sg. gizra 'figure, form, pattern') are variations of an inflectional (especially verbal) paradigm that are determined by the choice of consonants in the consonantal root. Thus, a paradigm has not only a regular gizra but various irregular ones, which occur most commonly when

• the consonantal root contains a "guttural" (ʔ ȝ h) or a semivowel (j w);
• the consonantal root contains a n, since nC tends to assimilate into CC
• the consonantal root has 2 letters.

Most of the irregularities occur in binyan fȝøl.

Prepositions

Some prepositions:

• en 'in' [from PSem *ina]
• ly (l before V) 'to'
• by (b before V) 'by, at'
• šydo 'out' (from *śadiyah 'to the field')
• me (men before V) 'from'
• ȝem 'with'
• ȝal 'on'
• lid 'of (possessive)'
• ȝbar 'over'
• þaþ 'under'
• arþo 'down'

Numerals

0: cefry 1: yhad 2: šnain / attributive šnė 3: šlėš 4: yrbaȝ 5: hymes 6: sec/sets 7: sabȝy 8: šmėni 9: þesȝy 10: ȝašry 20: ȝešrin 30: šlėšin 40: yrbȝin 50: hymsin 60: setsin 70: sybȝin 80: šmėnin 90: þesȝin 100: me'yþ 1000: alfy 1000000: alfun

Syntax

Accusative marker

The accusative marker iþ is used when the object is animate.

Existentials

The word iš is used to indicate existence. It is also used with the preposition ly 'to' or the possessive pronouns to indicate possession. The negative of iš is lėš.

• Iš mykėm ėn xøl bašar šaš = There is a place where everyone is happy.
• A iš lex zman? = Do you have time?

The particle iš uses the accusative marker iþ when the "object" is animate.

Conditional clauses

• "if" = en
• "then" = ež

Relative clauses

The relative pronoun xi is used for both relative and complement clauses. It takes prepositional cases, just like English relative pronouns.

Derivation

Noun and adjective patterns

• CaCCy, CeCCy, CøCCy = segolates
• CyCiC = adjective; -able
• CyCuC = adjective; color
• CyCaCt, CyCeCt, CyCøCt
• CaCaCt = describes a condition
• CyCeCCaC = diminutive
• myCCaC(t) = often denotes a place
• maCCaC(t) = causative version of myCCaC(t)
• meCCaCt = nominalization
• myCCeC(t) = instrument
• þyCCuC = verbal noun
• þyCCiC = verbal noun
• þyCCøCt = (hypothetical cognate of Hebrew tiCCóCet) = system of things
• CaCaC = agentive
• CaCCan = agentive; -an is an agentive
• CaCCėn and CeCaCėn = nominalization
• CaCCyþ

Affixes

• -an = forms agentives and adjectives
• -uþ = (borrowed from Hebrew) abstract noun
• -i = forms adjectives
• i- = non-, un-
• tarmy- = pre-, not yet
• -ri = -ry (from English)

Lexicon

ʔ

• √ʔ-b-b
  • ybib 'spring'
• √ʔ-(w)-r
  • aur 'light'
  • awer 'to illuminate'
• √ʔ-d-m
  • ydum 'red'
• ež 'then'
• √ʔ-h-b
  • yhabþ 'love'
  • yhab 'to love'
• √ʔ-ž-n
  • øžny 'ear'
• √ʔ-y-s
  • is 'equal'
  • ajes 'to equate'
    • ajus 'metaphor; simile'
• √ʔ-x-l
  • yxal 'to eat'
  • exly 'food'
  • þaxil 'comsumption'
    • þaxili 'to consume'
• √ʔ-l-h
  • Elėh 'God'
  • aleh 'to deify'
• √ʔ-m-n
  • amėn (in some religions) 'Amen'
  • homen 'to trust, to believe'
• √ʔ-m-r
  • ymar 'to say'
  • emry 'remark'
  • amer 'to assert, to affirm'
• √ʔ-r-þ
  • arþy 'earth'
• √ʔ-þ-j
  • yþė 'to come'

B

• bajþ 'house'
• √b-ȝ-l
  • bol 'master, lord'
• √b-r-ʔ
  • bra 'to create'
  • bri 'healthy'
• √b-š-r
  • bašar 'body'

G

• √g-d-l
  • gdėl = big
  • eþygdel = to grow

D

• √d-m
  • dam = blood
  • damem = to bleed
• √d-n
  • dun = to think (to be of the opinion that); to deem
  • dajan = judge
  • dajen = to judge
  • dint = judgement
• √d-r-x
  • darxy = road
  • drax = to go, to walk
  • hydrex = to lead
• √d-r-s
  • drøs = to study, to learn
  • daras = student, pupil
  • dares = to demand
  • þydares = to teach
  • mydras = school
    • jymydrasi = he schooled
  • þydrus = lesson

H

• √h-d-š
  • hydiš 'new'
• √h-t-ʔ
  • heta 'sin'
  • hatė 'to sin'
• √h-m-d
• √h-m-l
  • hymal 'to suffer'
  • hymil 'patient'
• √h-m-m
  • hymum 'warm'
• √h-r-c
  • hyruc 'yellow'

W

• √w-d-ȝ
  • wedȝ 'knowledge'
  • daȝ 'to know'
  • mauduȝ 'known; data'
• √w-l-d
  • waldy 'child'
  • molad 'birth'
  • wlad (archaic) 'to give birth to (of a woman)'
  • holed 'to give birth to, to sire, to father' (for both genders in the modern language)
• √w-r-q
  • wyruq 'green'
• √w-r-š
  • waršy 'inheritance'
  • reš 'to inherit'
  • wriš 'heritable'
  • wrišt 'gene'
  • morašt 'heritage'
  • twarešt 'tradition'

Z

• √z-h-r
  • hazhėr 'to warn'
• √z-m-r
  • myzmer 'kantele'
  • zmør 'to sing'
• √z-r-ȝ
  • zarȝe 'seed'
  • zraȝ 'to sow'

Ž

• √ž-b-h
  • þyžbuh 'sacrifice (the act of sacrifice)'
  • žbih 'sacrifice (the thing or person sacrificed)'
  • žabeh 'to sacrifice'
  • mižbeh 'altar'
• žbi 'antelope'
• √ž-h-b
  • žahab 'gold'
  • žaheb 'to gild'
• √ž-h-r
  • žohry 'noon'
• √ž-m-r
  • žemyrt 'might'
• √žxr
  • žyxar 'to remember'
  • žaxer 'to record; to memorize'
  • hažxer 'to remind'
  • hyždyxer 'to come to mind'
  • styžxer 'to make note of'
• √ž-r-ȝ
  • žerėȝ (f.) 'arm'

T

• √t-ȝ-m
  • tȝam 'to choose; (archaic) to taste'
  • taȝem 'to elect'
    • taȝum 'election'
  • þytaȝem '(literary) to be pleased with, to take pleasure in'
  • stytȝem 'to try out'

J

• jad 'hand'
• √j-b-s
  • jabas 'dry'
• √j-m-n
  • jymin 'right'

X

• √x-ž-b
  • xažby 'lie (untruth)'
  • xžøb 'to lie (tell a lie)'
  • xažeb 'to deceive'
  • axžeb 'to deny'
• √x-s-f
  • xasfy 'silver, money'
  • myxsaf 'bank'
• √x-þ-b
  • xþøb 'to write'

L

• lė = not; no
• ly = to, for
• √l-b-n
  • lban 'white'
• √l-b-s
  • lbas 'clothes'
• √l-m-d
  • lymad 'to notice, to experience, to come to know'
  • lamed 'to show, to point out'
  • hylθymed 'to find one's way around'
• √l-(w)-n
  • lun 'to sojourn'
  • lawan 'guest'
• lysėn 'tongue; language'

M

• √m-l-x
  • malxy 'king'
• √m-n-w
  • myno 'to count'
• main 'water'

N

• √n-b-ʔ
  • nabi 'prophet, truthteller' (from Hebrew)
  • nabė 'to call out (a wrongdoing)'
  • heþynbe 'to hector'
• √n-b-t
  • þynabet (by) 'to look (at)'
• √n-ȝ-m
  • nyȝam 'nice'
• √n-f-l
  • føl 'to fall'
  • nøfl 'fall (season)'
• √n-š-ʔ
  • še 'to carry'
• √n-þ-n
  • þen 'to give'

Ȝ

• √ȝ-n-y
  • ȝne 'to answer'
  • þyȝane 'to satisfy'
• √ȝ-š-j
  • ȝyše 'to do, to make'
  • maȝše 'act'

F

• √f-l-ʔ
  • føla 'miracle'
  • hafle 'to amaze'
  • miføla 'wonderful'

P

• √p-rk-s
  • parkes 'to act'
  • parkis 'action'
  • þyparkes 'to react'
• √p-s-f
  • psif 'vote'
  • psifin 'voting'
  • psøf 'to vote'
  • pėsef 'voter'

C

• √c-b-ȝ
• √c-d-k
  • cdak = right
  • hycdek = to justify
  • þycadek = to make right, to set right; to right a wrong

K

• √k-d-s
  • kdės 'holy'
  • hakdes 'to dedicate'
  • makdas (formal) 'chosen, particular, specific, not arbitrary'
  • kades 'to sanctify'
  • mykødas 'holy'
    • mykøsyn (a swear word)
• √k-j-ž
  • kaiž 'summer'
• √k-m
  • kam 'he stood up; he rose'
  • mykėm 'place'
  • mykėmi 'to locate'
• √k-r-ʔ
  • kra 'to read, to call'
  • mekra 'scripture'
  • tykru 'invocation, prayer'
• √k-s-m
  • hyksem 'to curse'

R

• √r-ʔ-j
  • ry'e 'to see'
• √r-þ-m
  • reþmy 'number'

S

• √s-x-n
  • sxan 'to live (at a certain place)'
  • mesxan 'apartment'
  • saxen 'to inhabit'
• √s-l-m
  • slėm 'peace; hello!'
    • Slėm ȝal axøm '(a greeting)'
• √s-m
  • sem 'name'
  • samem 'to name'
• √s-m-ȝ
  • smaȝ 'to hear'
• √s-m-n
  • smen '(is) fat'
  • samny 'fat, oil'
• √s-þ-w
  • seþaw 'winter'

Š

• šmėl 'left'
• √š-k-l
  • škul 'heavy'
• √š-l-g
  • šalgy 'snow'
• šol 'fox'

Þ

• √þ-g-m
  • hyþgem 'explain'
• √þ-l-l
  • þlul 'steep; difficult'

Sample texts

O how quickly the sculpture of life

O! Xma myhirt þykliȝyn lid hajin,
Šbėber ly temaša ktantani!
Mygiluþyn lid malxyn ȝal þrøn lau
Še xlil mygruf by gali jam.
Aþøm lyxi maþuj heno mømancabta hen,
Ȝabry hen Elėh aþøm lawani ȝal arþyn.
Xøl lanė mødajan ȝal parkisi lanė;
Þen'nė þėþ ly ȝnijel, w agaþeržijėþ had ly wdud.

O how quickly the sculpture of life
Shatters into tiny fragments!
The splendor of the king on his throne
Is completely swept away by sea-waves.
Ye who are come hither stationed here,
By the grace of God ye are guests on earth.
All of us are judged according to our actions;
Let us give to the poor and exercise charity towards one another.

Lysėn þėgamiþ, lysėn þlul

• Yhad texni, rab texnes; yhad þėgami, rab þėgames = one skill, many skills; one Togarmite, many Togarmites (the correct plural of þėgami is þėgamije)

UDHR

Xøl ynėsi še mewøladi hyruri w isi by akšoprepjan w žyxawil laum. Høm še møþyhanani ȝym ložeki w synidisi w høbu ly parkus l odšni in ruh lid ahwuþ.

all human-PL COP be.born/PASS.PART-PL free-PL and equal-PL in dignity-DEF.SG and right/PL-DEF.PL 3PL.POSS. 3PL COP grant/PASS.PART-PL with reason and conscience and ought-3PL to act.VN to one_another in spirit of brotherhood

/xøl ə'nesi ʃɛ mɛvø'ladi hə'ruri 'visi in akʃo'prepjan v ʒə'xavil løym || høm ʃɛ møθəha'nani ɣəm lo'ʒɛki fsəni'disi və 'høbu lə 'parkus 'lotʃni bə ruh lid 'ahvuθ/