Af Mexee

Af Mexee is a Lowland East Cushitic language.

Introduction

Af Mexee dhehti (or Af Mexee for short) is a Somali condialect. The term Mexee dhehti means "What did you say?" and is used to differentiate Af Mexee from dialects such as Af Maxaa (tiri) (regular Somali) and Af Maay. However, since it is a Somali dialect, Af Mexee speakers refer to their language simply as Af Soomaali.

Af Mexee is probably mutually intelligible with Af Maxaa (I haven't tested it out though). It's mostly a fun way to improve my Somali, both in terms of my ability to use it and understanding its historical development and dialectal variation.

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

' b p t j ch x kh d th r s sh dh c g gh f q k l m n ny w h y

Vowels

a e i o u

aa ee ii oo uu

Diphthongs

ay aw ey oy ow

aay aaw eey ooy oow

Consonants

Af Mexee consonant phonemes

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal		m	n		ny /ɲ/
Stop consonant	voiceless	(p)	t /t̪/			k	q		' /ʔ/
	voiced	b	d /d̪/	dh /ɖ/		ɡ
Affricate	voiceless			ch /tʃ/
	voiced			j /dʒ/
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	sh /ʃ/			kh /x̠~χ/	x /ħ/	h
	voiced	p /β/	th /ð/			gh /ɣ/	(gh) /ɣ̠~ʁ/	c /ʕ/
Approximant			l		y /j/	w
Trill			r /r~ɾ/

Vowels

Af Mexee has five vowel articulations that all contrast frontness/backness and vowel length. There is little change in vowel quality when the vowel is lengthened.

There are five diphthongs that also occur in front and back, long and short versions.

Af Mexee monophthongs

	Front series		Back series		Orthography
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close front unrounded / Near-close near-front unrounded	i	iː	ɪ	ɪː	i	ii
Close-mid front unrounded / Open-mid front unrounded	e	eː	ɛ	ɛː	e	ee
Near-open front unrounded / Open back unrounded	æ	æː	ɑ	ɑː	a	aa
Open-mid central rounded / Open-mid back rounded	ɞ	ɞː	ɔ	ɔː	o	oo
Close central rounded / Close back rounded	ʉ	ʉː	u	uː	u	uu

Af Mexee diphthongs

First element is front		First element is back		Orthography
short	long	short	long	short	long
æi	æːi	ɑɪ	ɑːɪ	ay	aay
æʉ	æːʉ	ɑu	ɑːu	aw	aaw
ei	eːi	ɛɪ	ɛːɪ	ey	eey
ɞi	ɞːi	ɔɪ	ɔːɪ	oy	ooy
ɞʉ	ɞːʉ	ɔu	ɔːu	ow	oow

(In this article I haven't indicated frontness/backness)

Prosody

Intonation

Af Mexee is tonal. It has two tones: low and high. These are not normally indicated in writing, although this article mostly does.

Phonotactics

Syllable structure is (C)V(C), where V is any vowel or diphthong.

The consonants that can be geminated at syllable boundaries are: m, n, l, and r.

The consonants ', b, x, kh, d, r, s, sh, c, g, f, q, l, n, and h occur syllable-finally. The consonants p, ch, t, th, gh, k, m and ny cannot occur syllable-finally (although there are exceptions for t, k, and m). They undergo the following neutralizations:

p → b (or, in some cases, w)

t, th → d

k, gh → g

ny → yn, sometimes y

non-geminated m → n (m before b)

J and dh may occur in coda in a loanwords, although they are usually replaced with sh and r respectively. For example, xaj "Hajj", ogsaydh "oxide". T, k, and m may also occur in a few words, mostly of Arabic origin. In amany cases, variants with the expected d, g, or n exist. For example, xikmad "wisdom" (also xigmad), fitno "trial, temptation" (also fidno), muslim "Muslim" (also muslin), amni "safety, security" (NOT *anni).

The consonants p, th, gh, and ch do not occur word-initially in native words. They come from intervocalic -b-, -d/t-, -g/k-, and -lt- respectively (the modern intervocalic b, d/t, and g/k come from geminated consonants). When word-initial in loanwords, p and gh are pronounced /p/ and /ɣ̠~ʁ/ instead of the regular /β/ and /ɣ/.

Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Instead, epithetic consonants such as ', y, and w are inserted in between.

Morphophonology

Sandhi

At morpheme boundaries, the following changes occur (for endings beginning in a consonant, these changes apply after syllable-final neutralizations):

t (2nd person/feminine endings, middle voice, definite article/modifiers):

• dropped after -d, dh – Exception: -d assimilates to -t- of the middle voice to form -t- (instead of the expected -d-)
• l + t → ch
• t → th after underlying -a, aa, e, ee, o, oo (note that -o and -e become a before th)
• t of the middle voice, if it occurs between vowels after any applicable reductions, is softened to -th-
• t (of middle voice) + t, n → t, nn

k (definite article/modifiers):

• dropped after -', x, kh, c, g, q, h
• k → h after final -a, e, o (which then assimilate to the following vowel)

s (middle causative)

• l + s → sh

Vowels

• An a, e, or final -o followed by one of the "guttural" consonants (', x, c, or h) assimilates to the following vowel. If the following vowel is o, they can either become a or o. e.g.ma dhoho or ma dhaho "he does not say"
• Unstressed vowels are often dropped before vowel-initial endings if it will not violate phonotactics.

e.g. gacan (stem: gacam-) + -ooyn → gacmooyn "hands" (not *gacamooyn)

Sometimes metathesis is involved.

e.g. culus "(he/she is) heavy" + -aan → cuslaan "(they are) heavy" (not *culsaan)

Morphology

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Af Mexee personal pronouns

	Independent		Clitic		Possessive3	With locative particles
	Stressed	Unstressed	Subject1	Object2		+ ún	+ ká	+ kú	+ lá
1S	aní	an(i)	an	i	kéy	íin	iká	ikú	ilá
2S	athí	ad/athi	ad	ku	káa	kúun	kuká	kukú	kulá
3SM	usú	us(u)	us	(su)	kíis	súun	suká	sukú	sulá
3SF	ishí	ish(i)	ish	(shi)	kíshi	shíin	shiká	shikú	shilá
1P	unú	un(u)	an/un	nu	kéen	núun	nuká	nukú	nulá
2P	isín	isin	ad/isin	sin	kíin	síin	sinká	sinkú	sinlá
3P	ishó	isho	ish/isho	(sho)	kísho	shóon	shoká	shokú	sholá
IMP4	–	–	la	–	–	lóon	laká	lakú	lalá

¹ Clitic subject pronouns are optional and are often dropped unless needed for clarity or emphasis. For further emphasis, the independent forms may be used. In the plural, the clitic forms un, isin, and isho are formal; the more commonly used forms are an, ad, and ish respectively.

² Third person object pronouns are only used for humans and (anthropomorphized) animals.

³ Masculine forms are shown (the corresponding feminine forms begin in t-). Possessives may be used as modifiers, in which case they attach to the noun, or independently as possessive pronouns.

⁴ Used for impersonal passive. Although it is technically a subject pronoun, it behaves as an object pronoun (but always comes before any true object pronouns).

K/T Pronouns

The k/t determiners (including possessives and the definite article) can be used independently as pronouns. They pluralize by inserting the infix -uw- after the k of the masculine singular.

e.g. kan "this (one), m.", tan "this (one), f.", kuwan "these (ones)"

ki "the one, m.", ti "the one, f.", kuwi "the ones"

There is an additional k/t pronoun with no determiner equivalent:

• ko, to, kuwo: one/ones (indefinite) - e.g. ko kale "another one"

Nouns

Plural is formed with -óoyn (definite: -óoyki) or -yáal (definite: -yáalki). The ending -yaal is used for nouns (mostly masculine) ending in -e or -i, e.g. tuké "crow" → tukeyáal. All other nouns take the ending -óoyn. Note that both endings override any other high tones in the word. For feminine nouns ending in -o, the -o becomes a and an epithetic th is added before the ending. For example, maghaaló "city" + -óoyn → maghaalathóoyn "cities". Masculine nouns assimilate an -o to the ending.

Some words (mostly body parts) have a "short" plural in -ó (definite: -íhi) in addition to the "long" plural in -óoyn/yáal. In the case of body parts, the short plural is when they belong to one person.

e.g. Gacánti taagheen. = They raised the hand (i.e. each person raised a hand; hand is in singular).

Gacmíhi taagheen. = They raised the hands (i.e. each person raised both hands; hand is in short plural).

Gacmíhi la taaghi. = The hands (of a single person; hand is in short plural) were raised.

Gacmóoyki la taaghi. = The hands (of multiple people; hand is in long plural) were raised.

For other words, the short plural is used as a collective noun. Collective nouns following other patterns also exist and are mostly relics of earlier plural formations.

Particles

K/T Determiners

The definite article attaches to the noun and is subject to sandhi rules.

• Masculine/Plural: -ki
• Feminine: -ti

There is also a remote definite article.

• Masculine/Plural: -kíi
• Feminine: -tíi
  • Does not affect tonation of the word.

Other determiners that behave similarly to the definite article:

• Possessives (see Personal Pronouns)
• Demonstratives:
  • -kan/tan: this, these
  • -kaas/taas: that, those
• Interrogative:
  • -kée/tée: which
    • Causes any high tones in the word to be dropped.
  • -ma: which (not a k/t determiner, but might as well include it here)

Negation Particles

The negation particles are má, an, ha, and ya. Each of these serves a different function.

• má is the default negation particle in main clauses and is used with the indicative. e.g. má qapi "I do not have".It can combine to clitic subject pronouns:
  • má + an(an) → máan(an) (for (an), see the next point)
  • má + ad/athan → máad/máathan
  • má + us(an) → máws(an)
  • má + ish(an) → máysh(an)
  • má + un(an) → máwn(an)
  • má + isin(an) → máysin(an)
  • má + isho(n) → máysho(n)
• an has two functions:
  • It is used to form negative subject pronouns, which replace clitic subjects in negative clauses. e.g. má usan qapin "He did not have", compare us qapi "he had". In this usage, an is optional and may be dropped - e.g. má us qapin. It combines to clitic subjects:
    • ad + an → athan
    • isho + an → ishon
    • The rest simply add -an - i.e. anan, usan, ishan, unan, isinan
  • It is also used as the sole negation particle in subordinate clauses. Since negation is shown on the verb, it is also optional here. e.g. ninkii (an) af soomaali aqiin "the man who does not know Somali". Note that in this usage, an prefers clause-initial position (although something like ninkii af soomaali an aqiin would not be incorrect).
• ha is used in the negative imperative. e.g. ha bixin "don't leave".
• ya is used to negate the jussive. e.g. ya usan bixin "don't let him leave". Like má, ya can combine with clitic subjects. e.g. yawsan bixin.

Focus Particles

Focus particles are used with main clause verbs. They are wáa, waxa, aa, and their interrogative equivalents (more may be added later).

• waa optionally precedes a main affirmative verb. It is used to indicate that the verb is NOT being used adjectivally and puts emphasis on the verb.

e.g. ninki bixi "the man left" OR "the man who left"; ninki wáa bixi "the man left" or "the man left"

• The interrogative equivalent of wáa is máa.

e.g. ninki maa bixi? "did the man leave?"

• wáa and máa can combine to clitic subjects as follows:

• wáa + an → wáan
• wáa + ad → wáad
• wáa + us → wóos
• wáa + ish → wéesh
• wáa + un → wóon
• wáa + isin → wéesin
• wáa + isho → wéesho

• wáa can also be used with nouns (in the present) with an implied copula.

e.g. wáa nin "(he) is a man".

wáa cadaan "(he/she/it/they) is/are white" (literally "whiteness").

• As an extension of the above isage, it can be used with a subordinate clause (introduced by ín "that") to indicate obligation. In tenses other than the present indicative, the copula (in the feminine) is used.

e.g. wáa ín us taghó "he should/has to go" (literally: "it (is) that he go).

ín us taghó ahaayti "he should have gone" (literally: "it was that he go").

• waxa is used before a main verb when the object follows the verb, allowing for a SVO word order. It literally means the thing (equivalent to regular wixi). It places emphasis on the object.

e.g. ninki waxa qaathi qalin "the man took a pen" (literally: "the thing the man took (was) a pen")

• The interrogative equivalent of waxa is maxa.

e.g. ninki maxa qaathi qalin? "did the man take a pen?"

• waxa and maxa can combine to clitic subjects as follows:

• waxa + an → waxan
• waxa + ad → waxad
• waxa + us → wuxus
• waxa + ish → wixish
• waxa + un → wuxun
• waxa + isin → wixisin
• waxa + isho → wixisho

• aa put emphasis on a noun (either subject or object). It follows the noun being emphasized.

e.g. ninki aa qalinki qaathi/qalinki ninki aa qaathi "the man took the pen" (or "the pen took the man")

• The interrogative equivalent of aa is ma - aa (i.e. aa is kept and the noun is preceded by ma).

e.g. ma ninki aa qalinki qaathi? "did the man take the pen?" (or "did the pen take the man?)

• aa can combine to clitic subjects in the same way as waa.

• waxa can be combined with aa to form waxaa, which is used when the subject follows the verb (allowing for OVS word order). It places emphasis on the subject.

e.g. qalinki waxaa qaathi ninki "the man took the pen" (literally: what took the pen (was) the man")

• The interrogative equivalent of waxaa is maxaa.

e.g. qalinki maxaa qaathi ninki? "did the man take the pen?"

Adjectives

Adjectives in Af Mexee are technically verbs. Unlike other verbs, they do not vary according to gender. However, they are conjugated for time and person (following the adjectival conjugation).

e.g. min yar "a small house", min yaraay "a house that was small"

Adjectives can be reduplicated and/or take adjectival conjugation endings to show plurality, or the singular forms may be used.

e.g. minooyn yaryar(aan)/yar(aan) "small houses"

In the present, Class III long forms can be used predicatively for disambiguation. In other tenses, focus particles such as waa can be used (note that in the present, waa can only be used with the long forms).

e.g. inanki yar "the small boy" or "the boy is small"

inanki (waa) yaryaha "the boy is small"

inankii yaraay "the boy that was small" or "the boy was small"

inankii waa yaraay "the boy was small"

Verbs

There are three main classes of verbs: the suffix, prefix, and adjectival conjugations.

Class I: Suffix Conjugation

The suffix conjugation is the most common and productive verb class. It can be divided into 5 conjugation groups:

1. Conjugation 1: Root verbs
2. Conjugation 2: -(a)m- (anticausative) verbs
3. Conjugation 3 (A, B, C): -ish- (causative) verbs
4. Conjugation 4 (A, B, C): -at- (middle) verbs
5. Conjugation 5 (A, B): -p- verbs

• Note: Affixes can be combined - e.g. cunsiismid "to be made to eat" (stem: cun-siish-am-). When any derivational affix is added to -ish- (or derivatives such as -siish-), the -sh- always becomes -s-. Affixes combine in the order -oo/aa- + -p- + -(si)ish- + -at/o- + -(a)m-.

Conjugation 1

Root verbs with no extra affixes. e.g. keeni "to bring" (stem: keen-)

(Note: –́ = penultimate high tone, or final if monomoraic)

Class I Conjugation 1

Infinitive					–́ i				keéni
Verbal Noun (f.)					-íd (-íth-)				keeníd
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-a	keena	-í	keení	-i	keeni	-ín	keenín
2S	-ta	keenta	-tí	keentí	-ti	keenti			–́	kéen	–́ in	keénin
3SM	-a	keena	-ó	keenó	-i	keeni
3SF	-ta	keenta	-tó	keentó	-ti	keenti
1P	-na	keenna	-nó	keennó	-ni	keenni
2P	-tiín	keentiín	-tiín	keentiín	-teén	keenteén			–́ a	keéna	-ína	keenína
3P	-aán	keenaán	-aán	keenaán	-eén	keeneén

Conjugation 2

Anticausative verbs derived with the passive affix -(a)m-. When derived from a Conjugation 3 verb, the -sh- becomes a -s-, giving the combined affix -(i)s(a)m- Note that in dropping environments, either the -i- or -a- of -(i)s(a)m- may be dropped - e.g. karisma or karsama "it cooks" (the latter is more common). -(a)m- can also combine with -at- (though more rarely) to form -am-, where the -a- is NOT dropped. There are two competing paradigms for Conjugation 2 verbs: the first treats them as a Conjugation 1 verb, with the -(a)m affix behaving as a part of the stem, while the second is a hybrid of Conjugations 1 and 4. The hybrid paradigm cannot be used when the -a- of -(a)m- is preserved in a combined affix such as -am- or -sam-.

e.g. xirmi "to close (INTR), get closed" (stem: xir-(a)m-)

Class I Conjugation 2 - Paradigm 1

Infinitive					–́ mi				xírmi
Verbal Noun (f.)					-míd (-míth-)				xirmíd
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-ma	xirma	-mí	xirmí	-mi	xirmi	-mín	xirmín
2S	-anta	xiranta	-antí	xirantí	-anti	xiranti			–́ an	xíran	–́ min	xírmin
3SM	-ma	xirma	-mó	xirmó	-mi	xirmi
3SF	-anta	xiranta	-antó	xirantó	-anti	xiranti
1P	-anna	xiranna	-annó	xirannó	-anni	xiranni
2P	-antiín	xirantiín	-antiín	xirantiín	-anteén	xiranteén			–́ ma	xírma	-mína	xirmína
3P	-maán	xirmaán	-maán	xirmaán	-meén	xirmeén

Class I Conjugation 2 - Paradigm 2

Infinitive					–́ mi				xírmi
Verbal Noun (f.)					-míd (-míth-)				xirmíd
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-ma	xirma	ˊ-mí	xírmí	-mi	xirmi	-mín	xirmín
2S	-mata	xirmata	-matí	xirmatí	-mati	xirmati			–mó	xirmó	ˊ–min	xírmin
3SM	-ma	xirma	-mó	xirmó	-mi	xirmi
3SF	-mata	xirmata	-mató	xirmató	-mati	xirmati
1P	-manna	xirmanna	-mannó	xirmannó	-manni	xirmanni
2P	-matiín	xirmatiín	-matiín	xirmatiín	-mateén	xirmateén			–́ ma	xírma	-mína	xirmína
3P	-maán	xirmaán	-maán	xirmaán	-meén	xirmeén

Conjugation 3A

Verbs derived from root verbs with the causisive affix -ish-. The sh combines with t and n to form s and nn respectively. e.g. karín "to cook" (stem: kar-ish-).

Class I Conjugation 3A

Infinitive					-ín				karín
Verbal Noun (f.)					-ís				karís
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-(i)sha	kar(i)sha	-(i)shí	kar(i)shí	-(i)shi	kar(i)shi	-inín	karinín
2S	-isa	karisa	-isí	karisí	-isi	karisi			ˊ–ish	kárish	–ínin	karínin
3SM	-(i)sha	kar(i)sha	-(i)shó	kar(i)shó	-(i)shi	kar(i)shi
3SF	-isa	karisa	-isó	karisó	-isi	karisi
1P	-ina	karina	-inó	karinó	-ini	karini
2P	-isiín	karisiín	-isiín	karisiín	-iseén	kariseén			–ísha/-́sha	karísha/kársha	-inína	karinína
3P	-(i)shaán	kar(i)shaán	-(i)shaán	kar(i)shaán	-(i)sheén	kar(i)sheén

Conjugation 3B

Verbs derived with the causative affix -siish- (from -ish- + -ish-). e.g. gaarsiin "to make reach".

Class I Conjugation 3B

Infinitive					-siín				gaarsiín
Verbal Noun (f.)					-siís				gaarsiís
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-siisha	gaarsiisha	-siishí	gaarsiishí	-siishi	gaarsiishi	-siinín	gaarsiiinín
2S	-siisa	gaarsiisa	-siisí	gaarsiisí	-siisi	gaarsiisi			–síish	gaarsíish	–siínin	gaarsiínin
3SM	-siisha	gaarsiisha	-siishó	gaarsiishó	-siishi	gaarsiishi
3SF	-siisa	gaarsiisa	-siisó	gaarsiisó	-siisi	gaarsiisi
1P	-siina	gaarsiina	-siinó	gaarsiinó	-siini	gaarsiini
2P	-siisiín	gaarsiisiín	-siisiín	gaarsiisiín	-siiseén	gaarsiiseén			–siísha	gaarsiísha	-siinína	gaarsiinína
3P	-siishaán	gaarsiishaán	-siishaán	gaarsiishaán	-siisheén	gaarsiisheén

Conjugation 3C

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives with the causative affix -aash- (from -aa- + -(i)sh-). e.g. bishaayn "to water, pour water (in/on)".

Class I Conjugation 3C

Infinitive					-aáyn				bishaáyn
Verbal Noun (f.)					-aás				bishaás
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-aasha	bishaasha	-aashí	bishaashí	-aashi	bishaashi	-aaynín	bishaaynín
2S	-aasa	bishaasa	-aasí	bishaasí	-aasi	bishaasi			ˊ–aash	bisháash	–aáynin	bishaáynin
3SM	-aasha	bishaasha	-aashó	bishaashó	-aashi	bishaashi
3SF	-aasa	bishaasa	-aasó	bishaasó	-aasi	bishaasi
1P	-aayna	bishaayna	-aaynó	bishaaynó	-aayni	bishaayni
2P	-aasiín	bishaasiín	-aasiín	bishaasiín	-aaseén	bishaaseén			–aásha	bishaásha	-aaynína	bishaaynína
3P	-aashaán	bishaashaán	-aashaán	bishaashaán	-aasheén	bishaasheén

Conjugation 4A

Verbs with the middle/autobenefactive affix -o/at-. When derived from Conjugation 3 verbs, the -sh- becomes -s-, giving the combined affix -so/sat-. Depending on the stem, there may or may not be reductions. e.g. xirán "to put on" (stem: xir-at-), karsán "to cook for oneself" (stem: kar-s-at-).

Class I Conjugation 4A - With reductions

Infinitive					-án				xirán
Verbal Noun (f.)					-ashó (-ashá-)				xirashó
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-ta	xirta	-tí	xirtí	-ti	xirti	-anín	xiranín
2S	-ata	xirata	-atí	xiratí	-ati	xirati			–ó	xiró	–ánin	xiránin
3SM	-ta	xirta	-tó	xirtó	-ti	xirti
3SF	-ata	xirata	-ató	xirató	-ati	xirati
1P	-anna	xiranna	-annó	xirannó	-anni	xiranni
2P	-atiín	xiratiín	-atiín	xiratiín	-ateén	xirateén			–́ ta	xírta	-anína	xiranína
3P	-taán	xirtaán	-taán	xirtaán	-teén	xirteén

Class I Conjugation 4A - Without reductions

Infinitive					-án				karsán
Verbal Noun (f.)					-ashó (-ashá-)				karsashó
	Present Affirmtive		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmtive		Past Negtive		Impertive Affirmtive		Impertive Negtive
1S	-atha	karsatha	-athí	karsathí	-athi	karsathi	-anín	karsanín
2S	-ata	karsata	-atí	karsatí	-ati	karsati			–ó	karsó	–ánin	karsánin
3SM	-atha	karsatha	-athó	karsathó	-athi	karsathi
3SF	-ata	karsata	-ató	karsató	-ati	karsati
1P	-anna	karsanna	-annó	karsannó	-anni	karsanni
2P	-atiín	karsatiín	-atiín	karsatiín	-ateén	karsateén			–́ atha	kársatha	-anína	karsanína
3P	-athaán	karsathaán	-athaán	karsathaán	-atheén	karsatheén

Conjugation 4B

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally adjectives) with the affix -oo/aath- (from -aa- + -o/at-). Class III verbs all have a Conjugation 4B counterpart, which is used inchoatively and/or continuatively. They share infinitive and imperative forms. e.g. ahaan "to be" (Class III) or "to become/remain" (Conjugation 4B, stem: ah-aath-).

Class I Conjugation 4B

Infinitive					-aán				ahaán
Verbal Noun (f.)					-aashó (-aashá-)				ahaashó
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperaative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-aatha	ahaatha	-aathí	ahaathí	-aathi	ahaathi	-aanín	ahaanín
2S	-aata	ahaata	-aatí	ahaatí	-aati	ahaati			–oów	ahoów	–aánin	ahaánin
3SM	-aatha	ahaatha	-aathó	ahaathó	-aathi	ahaathi
3SF	-aata	ahaata	-aató	ahaató	-aati	ahaati
1P	-aanna	ahaanna	-aannó	ahaannó	-aanni	ahaanni
2P	-aatiín	ahaatiín	-aatiín	ahaatiín	-aateén	ahaateén			–aátha	ahaátha	-aanína	ahaanína
3P	-aathaán	ahaathaán	-aathaán	ahaathaán	-aatheén	ahaatheén

Conjugation 4C

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns ending in -o) with the affix -oow/ooth- (from -oo- + -o/at-). e.g. caroón "to become angry" (stem car-ooth-, from caro "anger").

Class I Conjugation 4C

Infinitive					-oón				caroón
Verbal Noun (f.)					-ooshó (-ooshá-)				carooshó
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-ootha	carootha	-oothí	caroothí	-oothi	caroothi	-oonín	caroonín
2S	-oota	caroota	-ootí	carootí	-ooti	carooti			–oów	caroów	–oónin	caroónin
3SM	-ootha	carootha	-oothó	caroothó	-oothi	caroothi
3SF	-oota	caroota	-ootó	carootó	-ooti	carooti
1P	-oona	caroona	-oonó	caroonó	-ooni	carooni
2P	-ootiín	carootiín	-ootiín	carootiín	-ooteén	carooteén			–oótha	caroótha	-oonína	caroonína
3P	-oothaán	caroothaán	-oothaán	caroothaán	-ootheén	carootheén

Conjugation 5A

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns) with the affix -oop- (=-oo- + -p-). e.g. duqoopi "to get old" (stem: duq-oop-)

Class I Conjugation 5A

Infinitive					-oópi				duqoópi
Verbal Noun (f.)					-oopíd (-oopíth-)				duqoopíd
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-oopa	duqoopa	-oopí	duqoopí	-oopi	duqoopi	-oopín	duqoopín
2S	-oowta	duqoowta	-oowtí	duqoowtí	-oowti	duqoowti			–oów	duqoów	–oópin	duqoópin
3SM	-oopa	duqoopa	-oopó	duqoopó	-oopi	duqoopi
3SF	-oowta	duqoowta	-oowtó	duqoowtó	-oowti	duqoowti
1P	-oowna	duqoowna	-oownó	duqoownó	-oowni	duqoowni
2P	-oowtiín	duqoowtiín	-oowtiín	duqoowtiín	-oowteén	duqoowteén			–oópa	duqoópa	-oopína	duqoopína
3P	-oopaán	duqoopaán	-oopaán	duqoopaán	-oopeén	duqoopeén

Conjugation 5B

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns) with the affix -aap- (=-aa- + -p-). e.g. maghacaápi "to name" (stem: maghac-aap-).

Class I Conjugation 5B

Infinitive					-aápi				maghacaápi
Verbal Noun (f.)					-aapíd (-aapíth-)				maghacaapíd
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-aapa	maghacaapa	-aapí	maghacaapí	-aapi	maghacaapi	-aapín	maghacaapín
2S	-aawta	maghacaawta	-aawtí	maghacaawtí	-aawti	maghacaawti			–aáw	maghacaáw	–aápin	maghacaápin
3SM	-aapa	maghacaapa	-aapó	maghacaapó	-aapi	maghacaapi
3SF	-aawta	maghacaawta	-aawtó	maghacaawtó	-aawti	maghacaawti
1P	-aawna	maghacaawna	-aawnó	maghacaawnó	-aawni	maghacaawni
2P	-aawtiín	maghacaawtiín	-aawtiín	maghacaawtiín	-aawteén	maghacaawteén			–aápa	maghacaápa	-aapína	maghacaapína
3P	-aapaán	maghacaapaán	-aapaán	maghacaapaán	-aapeén	maghacaapeén

Class II: Prefix Conjugation

The prefix conjugation is a small, closed class of verbs that conjugate by means of prefixes and vowel changes. It includes the verbs aqoon "to know", ool "to be available", oran "to say/tell", and iman "to come". They have various forms due to analogy with each other and the suffix conjugation.

Class II: aqoón

Infinitive					aqoón				aqaáni
Verbal Noun (f.)					aqoonshó				aqaaníd
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	aqaan	aqaana	aqaán	aqaaní	aqiin	aqaani	aqiín	aqaanín
2S	taqaan	taqaana	taqaán	taqaaní	taqiin	taqaani	taqiín		aqóon	aqáan	aqíin	aqaánin
3SM	yaqaan	yaqaana	yaqaán	yaqaanó	yaqiin	yaqaani	yaqiín
3SF	taqaan	taqaana	taqaán	taqaanó	taqiin	taqaani	taqiín
1P	naqaan	naqaana	naqaán	naqaanó	naqiin	naqiini	naqiín
2P	taqaaniín		taqaaniín		taqiiniín	taqaaneén	taqiiniín		aqoóna	aqaána	aqoonína	aqaanína
3P	yaqaaniín	yaqaanaán	yaqaaniín	yaqaanaán	yaqiiniín	yaqaaneén	yaqiiniín

• ool is conjugated similarly to aqoon.

Class II: orán

Infinitive					orán				iraán
Verbal Noun (f.)					orashó				iraashó
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	ara	iraatha	orí	iraathí	iri	iraathi	oranín	iraanín
2S	tara	tiraatha	ortí	tiraathí	tiri	tiraathi			oró	iroów	oránin	iraánin
3SM	yara	yiraatha	oró	yiraathó	yiri	yiraathi
3SF	tara	tiraatha	ortó	tiraathó	tiri	tiraathi
1P	nara	niraatha	ornó	niraathí	niri	niraathi
2P	tiraathiín		ortiín	tiraathiín	tiraatheén				orátha	iraátha	oranína	iraanína
3P	yiraathiín	yiraathaán	oraán	yiraathaán	yiraatheén

Class II: imán

Infinitive					imán				imaán
Verbal Noun (f.)					imashó				imaashó
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	ima	imaatha	imí	imaathí	imi	imaathi	imanín	imaanín
2S	tima	timaatha	timí	timaathí	timi	timaathi			imó	imoów	imánin	imaánin
3SM	yima	yimaatha	yimó	yimaathó	yimi	yimaathi
3SF	tima	timaatha	timó	timaathó	timi	timaathi
1P	nima	nimaatha	nimó	nimaathí	nimi	nimaathi
2P	timaathiín		timiín	timaathiín	timaatheén				imátha	imaátha	imanína	imaanína
3P	yimaathiín	yimaathaán	yimiín	yimaathaán	yimaatheén

Class III: Adjectival Conjugation

The adjectival conjugation is used for adjectives and a few stative verbs such as love and hate (which in Somali are adjectives). All Class III verbs are stative, but not all stative verbs are class 3. The most basic Class III verb is ahaan "to be" (stem: ah-). The present has two forms which are used differently.

Class III: ahaán

Infinitive					ahaán
Verbal Noun (f.)					ahaashó
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive	Past Affirmative	Past Negative	Imperative Affirmative	Imperative Negative
1S	aha	ihi	ihí	ahaay	ahaáyn
2S	taha	tihid	tihíd	ahaayti		ahoów	ahaánin
3SM	yaha	ah	ahá	ahaay
3SF	taha	ah	ahá	ahaayti
1P	naha	nihin	nihín	ahaayni
2P	tihiín	tih(ith)iín	tih(ith)iín	ahaayteén		ahaátha	ahaanína
3P	yihiín	ahaán	ahaán	ahaayeén

Other Class III verbs are based off of this. e.g. casaan "to be red" (stem: cas-).

Class III

Infinitive					-aán					casaán
Verbal Noun (f.)					-aashó (-aashá-)					casaashó
	Present Affirmative				Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-aha	casaha	-i	casi	-í	casí	-aay	casaay	-aanín	casaáyn
2S	-taha	castaha	-id	casid	-íd	casíd	-aayti	casaayti			–oów	casoów	–aánin	casaánin
3SM	-yaha	casyaha	-	cas	-á	casá	-aay	casaay
3SF	-taha	castaha	-	cas	-á	casá	-aayti	casaayti
1P	-naha	casnaha	-in	casin	-ín	casín	-aayni	casaayni
2P	-tihiín	castihiín	-(ith)iín	cas(ith)iín	-(ith)iín	cas(ith)iín	-aayteén	casaayteén			–aátha	casaátha	-aanína	casaanína
3P	-yihiín	casyihiín	-aán	casaán	-aán	casaán	-aayeén	casaayeén

Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Voice

• Impersonal passive (with la) is used as the regular passive as well as pseudo-passive.
• Subjunctive forms can be used adjectivally. In this usage, plural marking is optional (hence why adjectives need not be marked for plurality).

Simple Present

• Used similarly to English simple present and past perfect continuous. Generally refers to a habitual action for dynamic verbs, or an ongoing action for stative verbs.
• Indicative:
  • Affirmative: "Present Indicative" forms - e.g. us tagha "he goes"
  • Negative: má + "Present Subjunctive" - e.g. máwsan taghó "he does not go"
• Subjunctive:
  • Affirmative: "Present Subjunctive" - e.g. nin taghó "a man who goes"
  • Negative: (an) + "Past Negative" - e.g. nin an taghín "a man who does not go"

Simple Past

• Used for a simple action in the past.
• Indicative:
  • Affirmative: "Past Affirmative" - e.g. us taghi "he went"
  • Negative: má + "Past Negative" - e.g. máwsan taghín "he did not go"
• Subjunctive:
  • Affirmative: "Past Affirmative" with final high tone - e.g. nin taghí "a man who went"
  • Negative: (an) + "Past Negative" - e.g. nin an taghín "a man who did not go" (note that this is identical to the present equivalent; for disambiguation, a compound form may be used instead)

Jussive

• Affirmative:
  • First and second person: Clitic subject + "Present Subjunctive" with penultimate high tone - e.g. an tágno "let us go"
  • Third person: ha + "Present Subjunctive" - e.g. ha taghó "let him go"
• Negative:
  • yaa + "2S Imperative Negative" - e.g. yoosan tághin "let him not go"

Syntax

Constituent order

The most common (and underlying) word-order is SOV.

Noun phrase

• Cardinal numbers come before the noun. If a cardinal number is present, the singular form of the noun is used.

nimooyn "men" BUT afar nin "four men" (afar nimooyn is also acceptable)

• Adjectives and determiners other than cardinal numbers come after the noun.
• The definite article and other suffixed determiners attach to the noun unless it is preceded by a cardinal number, in which case they attach to the number.

nimooyki "the men" BUT afarti nin "the four men"

• Possessive phrases can be formed in two ways:

a) Genitive construction

minki Shariif = Shariif's house (lit. the house (of) Shariif)

b) Possessive determiner

Shariif minkiis = Shariif's house (lit. Shariif his house)

Verb phrase

(Subject Pronoun) + Object Pronoun + Locative Particle + Negation (+ Clitic Subject Pronoun) + Relational Particle + Verb

Clitic subject pronouns come after the negation particle ma if it is present. Otherwise, they go at the beginning (in which case either the clitic or non-clitic forms may be used).

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Regular orthography:

• Bini aathanki dhammaantisho wixish dhachaan isho oo xor ah(aan) kana siman(aan) xagi sharafti ii xuquuqi. Ilaahi wuxus sho siishi wacyi ii damiir, waana in qof walba qofki kale si walaalnimo ah suula dhaqmo.

A not-so-accurate attempt at indicating vowel frontedness and tone (acute = high tone, umlaut = front, no accent = back + low tone):

• Bïnï ä́äthänkï dhammáantísho wixish dhachaán ishó oo xór äh(ää́n) kä́nä sïmän(ää́n) xägï sharáfti ïï xuquuqi. Ïläähï wuxus sho sïïshï wácyi ïï dämḯïr, waána ïn qof walba qofki kale sï walaalnímo äh süülä́ dhaqmó.

Gloss:

• Mankind-the entirety-their OBJFOC-they are_born.3P they REL free being.3P in-and equal.3P place-the dignity-the and rights-the. God OBJFOC-he them gave.3S reason and conscience, VBFOCUS-and that person every person-the other way brotherhood being him-for-with act.SBJV.

For comparison, a word-for-word translation into Af Maxaa (i.e. regular Somali):

• Bini aadanka dhammaantood waxay dhashaan iya[ga] oo xor ah kana siman xagga sharafta iyo xuquuqda. Ilaahay wuxuu (Ø) siiyay wacyi iyo damiir, waana in qof walba qofka kale si walaal[ti]nimo ah (Ø) ula dhaqmo.

Other resources

Swadesh list