Af Mexee

Revision as of 02:26, 19 February 2017 by Shariifka (talk | contribs) (→‎Jussive=)

Af Mexee is a Lowland East Cushitic language.

Introduction

Af Mexee dhehti (or Af Mexee for short) is a Somali condialect. The term Mexee dhehti means "What did you say?" and is used to differentiate Af Mexee from dialects such as Af Maxaa (tiri) (regular Somali) and Af Maay. However, since it is a Somali dialect, Af Mexee speakers refer to their language simply as Af Soomaali.

Af Mexee is probably mutually intelligible with Af Maxaa (I haven't tested it out though). It's mostly a fun way to improve my Somali, both in terms of my ability to use it and understanding its historical development and dialectal variation.

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

' b p t j ch x kh d th r s sh dh c g gh f q k l m n ny w h y

Vowels

a e i o u

aa ee ii oo uu

Diphthongs

ay aw ey oy ow

aay aaw eey ooy oow

Consonants

Af Mexee consonant phonemes
Labial Dental/
Alveolar
Postalveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
Nasal m n ny /ɲ/
Stop consonant voiceless (p) t /t̪/ k q ' /ʔ/
voiced b d /d̪/ dh /ɖ/ ɡ
Affricate voiceless ch /tʃ/
voiced j /dʒ/
Fricative voiceless f s sh /ʃ/ kh /x̠~χ/ x /ħ/ h
voiced p /β/ th /ð/ gh /ɣ/ (gh) /ɣ̠~ʁ/ c /ʕ/
Approximant l y /j/ w
Trill r /r~ɾ/

Vowels

Af Mexee has five vowel articulations that all contrast frontness/backness and vowel length. There is little change in vowel quality when the vowel is lengthened.

There are five diphthongs that also occur in front and back, long and short versions.

Af Mexee monophthongs
Front series Back series Orthography
short long short long short long
Close front unrounded /
Near-close near-front unrounded
i ɪ ɪː i ii
Close-mid front unrounded /
Open-mid front unrounded
e ɛ ɛː e ee
Near-open front unrounded /
Open back unrounded
æ æː ɑ ɑː a aa
Open-mid central rounded /
Open-mid back rounded
ɞ ɞː ɔ ɔː o oo
Close central rounded /
Close back rounded
ʉ ʉː u u uu
Af Mexee diphthongs
First element is front First element is back Orthography
short long short long short long
æi æːi ɑɪ ɑːɪ ay aay
æʉ æːʉ ɑu ɑːu aw aaw
ei eːi ɛɪ ɛːɪ ey eey
ɞi ɞːi ɔɪ ɔːɪ oy ooy
ɞʉ ɞːʉ ɔu ɔːu ow oow

(In this article I haven't indicated frontness/backness)

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Af Mexee is tonal. It has two tones: low and high. These are not normally indicated in writing, although this article mostly does.

Phonotactics

Syllable structure is (C)V(C), where V is any vowel or diphthong.

The consonants that can be geminated at syllable boundaries are: m, n, l, and r.

The consonants ', b, x, kh, d, r, s, sh, c, g, f, q, l, n, and h occur syllable-finally. The consonants p, ch, t, th, gh, k, m and ny cannot occur syllable-finally (although there are exceptions for t, k, and m). They undergo the following neutralizations:

pb (or, in some cases, w)

t, thd

k, ghg

nyyn, sometimes y

non-geminated mn (m before b)

J and dh may occur in coda in a loanwords, although they are usually replaced with sh and r respectively. For example, xaj "Hajj", ogsaydh "oxide". T, k, and m may also occur in non-native words, mostly of Arabic origin. In many cases, variants with the expected d, g, or n exist (but this applies less often for word-internal m). For example, xikmad "wisdom" (also xigmad), fitno "trial, temptation" (also fidno), muslim "Muslim" (also muslin), amni "safety, security" (NOT *anni).

The consonants p, th, gh, and ch do not occur word-initially in native words. They come from intervocalic -b/w-, -d/t-, -g/k-, and -lt- respectively (the modern intervocalic b, d/t, and g/k come from originally geminated consonants). When word-initial in loanwords, p and gh are pronounced /p/ and /ɣ̠~ʁ/ instead of the regular /β/ and /ɣ/.

Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Instead, epithetic consonants such as ', y, and w are inserted in between.

Morphophonology

Sandhi

At morpheme boundaries, the following changes occur (for endings beginning in a consonant, these changes apply after syllable-final neutralizations):

t (2nd person/feminine endings, middle voice, definite article/modifiers):

  • dropped after -d, dh – Exception: -d assimilates to -t- of the middle voice to form -t- (instead of the expected -d-)
  • l + t → ch
  • t → th after underlying -a, aa, e, ee, o, oo (note that -o and -e become a before th)
  • t of the middle voice, if it occurs between vowels after any applicable reductions, is softened to -th-
  • t (of middle voice) + t, nt, nn

k (definite article/modifiers):

  • dropped after -', x, kh, c, g, q, h
  • k → h after final -a, e, o (which then assimilate to the following vowel)

s (middle causative)

  • l + s → sh

Vowels

  • An a, e, or final -o followed by one of the "guttural" consonants (', x, c, or h) assimilates to the following vowel. If the following vowel is o, they can either become a or o. e.g.ma dhoho or ma dhaho "he does not say"
  • Unstressed vowels are often dropped before vowel-initial endings if it will not violate phonotactics.
e.g. gacan (stem: gacam-) + -ooyngacmooyn "hands" (not *gacamooyn)
Sometimes metathesis is involved.
e.g. culus "(he/she is) heavy" + -aancuslaan "(they are) heavy" (not *culsaan)

Morphology

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Af Mexee personal pronouns
Independent Clitic Possessive3 With locative particles
Stressed Unstressed Subject1 Object2 + ún + ká + kú + lá
1S
aní
an(i)
an
i
kéy
íin
iká
ikú
ilá
2S
athí
ad/athi
ad
ku
káa
kúun
koó
kukú
kulá
3SM
usú
us(u)
us
(su)
kíis
súun
suká
sukú
sulá
3SF
ishí
ish(i)
ish
(shi)
kíshi
shíin
shiká
shikú
shilá
1P
unú
un(u)
an/un
nu
kéen
núun
nuká
nukú
nulá
2P
isín
isin
ad/isin
sin
kíin
síin
sinká
sinkú
sinlá
3P
ishó
isho
ish/isho
(sho)
kísho
shóon
shoká
shokú
sholá
IMP4
la
lóon
laká
lakú
lalá

1 Clitic subject pronouns are optional and are often dropped unless needed for clarity or emphasis. For further emphasis, the independent forms may be used. In the plural, the clitic forms un, isin, and isho are formal; the more commonly used forms are an, ad, and ish respectively.

2 Third person object pronouns are only used for humans and (anthropomorphized) animals.

3 Masculine forms are shown (the corresponding feminine forms begin in t-). Possessives may be used as modifiers, in which case they attach to the noun, or independently as possessive pronouns.

4 Used for impersonal passive. Although it is technically a subject pronoun, it behaves as an object pronoun (but always comes before any true object pronouns).

K/T Pronouns

The k/t determiners (including possessives and the definite article) can be used independently as pronouns. They pluralize by inserting the infix -uw- after the k of the masculine singular.

e.g. kan "this (one), m.", tan "this (one), f.", kuwan "these (ones)"
ki "the one, m.", ti "the one, f.", kuwi "the ones"

There is an additional k/t pronoun with no determiner equivalent:

  • ko, to, kuwo: one/ones (indefinite) - e.g. ko kale "another one"

Nouns

Plural is formed with -óoyn (definite: -óoyki) or -yáal (definite: -yáalki). The ending -yaal is used for nouns (mostly masculine) ending in -e or -i, e.g. tuké "crow" → tukeyáal. All other nouns take the ending -óoyn. Note that both endings override any other high tones in the word. For feminine nouns ending in -o, the -o becomes a and an epithetic th is added before the ending. For example, maghaaló "city" + -óoynmaghaalathóoyn "cities". Masculine nouns assimilate an -o to the ending.

Some words (mostly body parts) have a "short" plural in (definite: -íhi) in addition to the "long" plural in -óoyn/yáal. In the case of body parts, the short plural is when they belong to one person.

e.g. Gacánti taagheen. = They raised the hand (i.e. each person raised a hand; hand is in singular).

Gacmíhi taagheen. = They raised the hands (i.e. each person raised both hands; hand is in short plural).
Gacmíhi la taaghi. = The hands (of a single person; hand is in short plural) were raised.
Gacmóoyki la taaghi. = The hands (of multiple people; hand is in long plural) were raised.

For other words, the short plural is used as a collective noun. Collective nouns following other patterns also exist and are mostly relics of earlier plural formations.

Cases

Af Mexee has nominative, absolutive, and genitive cases. Case is indicated primarily by tonation. Nouns can be split into different classes based on how they behave.

Particles

K/T Determiners

The definite article attaches to the noun and is subject to sandhi rules.

  • Masculine/Plural: -ki
  • Feminine: -ti

There is also a remote definite article.

  • Masculine/Plural: -kíi
  • Feminine: -tíi
    • Does not affect tonation of the word.

Other determiners that behave similarly to the definite article:

  • Possessives (see Personal Pronouns)
  • Demonstratives:
    • -kan/tan: this, these
    • -kaas/taas: that, those
  • Interrogative:
    • -kée/tée: which
      • Causes any high tones in the word to be dropped.
    • -ma: which (not a k/t determiner, but might as well include it here)

Negation Particles

The negation particles are má, an, há, and yáa. Each of these serves a different function.

  • is the default negation particle in main clauses and is used with the indicative. e.g. má qapi "I do not have".It can combine to clitic subject pronouns:
    • + an(an)máan(an) (for (an), see the next point)
    • + ad/athanmáad/máathan
    • + us(an)máws(an)
    • + ish(an)máysh(an)
    • + un(an)máwn(an)
    • + isin(an)máysin(an)
    • + isho(n)máysho(n)
  • an has two functions:
    • It is used to form negative subject pronouns, which replace clitic subjects in negative clauses. e.g. usan qapín "He did not have", compare us qapi "he had". In this usage, an is optional and may be dropped - e.g. us qapín. It combines to clitic subjects:
      • ad + anathan
      • isho + anishon
      • The rest simply add -an - i.e. anan, usan, ishan, unan, isinan
    • It is also used as the sole negation particle in subordinate clauses. Since negation is shown on the verb, it is also optional here. e.g. ninkii (an) af soomaali aqiin "the man who does not know Somali". Note that in this usage, an prefers clause-initial position (although something like ninkii af soomaali an aqiin would not be incorrect).
  • is used in the negative imperative. e.g. há bíxin "don't leave".
  • yáa is used to negate the jussive. e.g. yáa usan bixín "don't let him leave". Like , yáa can combine with clitic subjects. e.g. yóosan bixin.

Focus Particles

Focus particles are used with main clause verbs. They are wáa, waxa, aa, and their interrogative equivalents (more may be added later).

  • wáa optionally precedes a main affirmative verb. It is used to indicate that the verb is NOT being used adjectivally and puts emphasis on the verb.
e.g. ninki bixi "the man left" OR "the man who left"; ninki wáa bixi "the man left" or "the man left"
  • The interrogative equivalent of wáa is máa.
e.g. ninki máa bixi? "did the man leave?"
  • wáa and máa can combine to clitic subjects as follows:
  • wáa + anwáan
  • wáa + adwáad
  • wáa + uswóos
  • wáa + ishwéesh
  • wáa + unwóon
  • wáa + isinwéesin
  • wáa + ishowéesho
  • wáa can also be used with nouns (in the present) with a zero copula. In this case, it can go before or after the noun.
e.g. wáa nín OR nín wáa(he) is a man".
wáa cadaan OR cadaan wáa "(he/she/it/they) is/are white" (literally "whiteness").
  • As an extension of the above isage, it can be used with a subordinate clause (introduced by ín "that") to indicate obligation. In tenses other than the present indicative, the copula (in the feminine) is used.
e.g. wáa ín us taghó "he should/has to go" (literally: "it (is) that he go).
ín us taghó ahaayti "he should have gone" (literally: "it was that he go").
  • wixi is used before a main verb when the object follows the verb, allowing for a SVO word order. It literally means the thing. It places emphasis on the object.
e.g. ninki wixi qaathi qalin "the man took a pen" (literally: "the thing the man took (was) a pen")
  • The interrogative equivalent of wixi is mixi.
e.g. ninki mixi qaathi qalin? "did the man take a pen?"
  • wixi and mixi can combine to clitic subjects as follows:
  • wixi + anwaxan
  • wixi + adwaxad
  • wixi + uswuxus
  • wixi + ishwixish
  • wixi + unwuxun
  • wixi + isinwixisin
  • wixi + ishowixisho
  • aa put emphasis on a noun (either subject or object). It follows the noun being emphasized.
e.g. ninki aa qalinki qaathi/qalinki ninki aa qaathi "the man took the pen" (or "the pen took the man")
  • The interrogative equivalent of aa is ma - aa (i.e. aa is kept and the noun is preceded by ma).
e.g. ma ninki aa qalinki qaathi? "did the man take the pen?" (or "did the pen take the man?)
  • aa can combine to clitic subjects in the same way as waa.
  • wixi can be combined with aa to form waxaa, which is used when the subject follows the verb (allowing for OVS word order). It places emphasis on the subject.
e.g. qalinki waxaa qaathi ninki "the man took the pen" (literally: what took the pen (was) the man")
  • The interrogative equivalent of waxaa is maxaa.
e.g. qalinki maxaa qaathi ninki? "did the man take the pen?"

Adjectives

Adjectives in Af Mexee are technically verbs. Unlike other verbs, they do not vary according to gender. However, they are conjugated for time and person (following the adjectival conjugation). When used with a noun, they always have a final high tone due to being in the subjunctive (see Dependent clauses for more information).

e.g. min yár "a small house", min yaraáy "a house that was small"

Adjectives can be reduplicated and/or take adjectival conjugation endings to show plurality, or the singular forms may be used.

e.g. minóoyn yaryár/yaryaraán/yár/yaraán "small houses"

While predicative and descriptive uses of adjectives differ in tone, they are almost identical. In the present, Class III long forms can be used predicatively for disambiguation. Focus particles such as waa can also be used (note that in the present, waa can only be used with the long forms).

e.g. ínanki yár "the small boy"

ínanki yar "the boy is small"
ínanki (waa) yaryaha "the boy is small"
ínankíi yaraáy "the boy that was small"
ínankíi (waa) yaraay"the boy was small"

Verbs

There are three main classes of verbs: the suffix, prefix, and adjectival conjugations.

Class I: Suffix Conjugation

The suffix conjugation is the most common and productive verb class. It can be divided into 5 conjugation groups:

  1. Conjugation 1: Root verbs
  2. Conjugation 2: -(a)m- (anticausative) verbs
  3. Conjugation 3 (A, B, C): -ish- (causative) verbs
  4. Conjugation 4 (A, B, C): -at- (middle) verbs
  5. Conjugation 5 (A, B): -p- verbs
  • Note: Affixes can be combined - e.g. cunsiismid "to be made to eat" (stem: cun-siish-am-). When any derivational affix is added to -ish- (or derivatives such as -siish-), the -sh- always becomes -s-. Affixes combine in the order -oo/aa- + -p- + -(si)ish- + -at/o- + -(a)m-.
Conjugation 1

Root verbs with no extra affixes. e.g. keeni "to bring" (stem: keen-)

(Note: –́ = penultimate high tone, or final if monomoraic)

Class I Conjugation 1
Infinitive
–́ i
keéni
Verbal Noun (f.)
-íd (-íth-)
keeníd
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-a
keena
keení
-i
keeni
-ín
keenín
2S
-ta
keenta
-tí
keen
-ti
keenti
–́
kéen
–́ in
keénin
3SM
-a
keena
keenó
-i
keeni
3SF
-ta
keenta
-tó
keen
-ti
keenti
1P
-na
keenna
-nó
keen
-ni
keenni
2P
-tiín
keentiín
-tiín
keentiín
-teén
keenteén
–́ a
keéna
-ína
keenína
3P
-aán
keenaán
-aán
keenaán
-eén
keeneén
Conjugation 2

Verbs derived from lexically causative verbs with the passive/anticausative affix -(a)m-. When derived from a Conjugation 3 verb, the -sh- becomes a -s-, giving the combined affix -(i)s(a)m- Note that in dropping environments, either the -i- or -a- of -(i)s(a)m- may be dropped - e.g. karisma or karsama "it cooks" (the latter is more common). -(a)m- can also combine with -at- (though more rarely) to form -am-, where the -a- is NOT dropped. There are two competing paradigms for Conjugation 2 verbs: the first treats them as a Conjugation 1 verb, with the -(a)m affix behaving as a part of the stem, while the second is a hybrid of Conjugations 1 and 4. The hybrid paradigm cannot be used when the -a- of -(a)m- is preserved in a combined affix such as -am- or -sam-.

e.g. xirmi "to close (INTR), get closed" (stem: xir-(a)m-)

Class I Conjugation 2 - Paradigm 1
Infinitive
–́ mi
xírmi
Verbal Noun (f.)
-míd (-míth-)
xirmíd
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-ma
xirma
-mí
xir
-mi
xirmi
-mín
xirmín
2S
-anta
xiranta
-antí
xirantí
-anti
xiranti
–́ an
xíran
–́ min
xírmin
3SM
-ma
xirma
-mó
xir
-mi
xirmi
3SF
-anta
xiranta
-antó
xirantó
-anti
xiranti
1P
-anna
xiranna
-annó
xirannó
-anni
xiranni
2P
-antiín
xirantiín
-antiín
xirantiín
-anteén
xiranteén
–́ ma
xírma
-mína
xirmína
3P
-maán
xirmaán
-maán
xirmaán
-meén
xirmeén
Class I Conjugation 2 - Paradigm 2
Infinitive
–́ mi
xírmi
Verbal Noun (f.)
-míd (-míth-)
xirmíd
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-ma
xirma
ˊ-mí
xír
-mi
xirmi
-mín
xirmín
2S
-mata
xirmata
-matí
xirmatí
-mati
xirmati
–mó
xir
ˊ–min
xírmin
3SM
-ma
xirma
-mó
xir
-mi
xirmi
3SF
-mata
xirmata
-mató
xirmató
-mati
xirmati
1P
-manna
xirmanna
-mannó
xirmannó
-manni
xirmanni
2P
-matiín
xirmatiín
-matiín
xirmatiín
-mateén
xirmateén
–́ ma
xírma
-mína
xirmína
3P
-maán
xirmaán
-maán
xirmaán
-meén
xirmeén
Conjugation 3A

Verbs derived from root verbs with the causisive affix -ish-. The sh combines with t and n to form s and nn respectively. e.g. karín "to cook" (stem: kar-ish-).

Class I Conjugation 3A
Infinitive
-ín
karín
Verbal Noun (f.)
-ís
karís
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-(i)sha
kar(i)sha
-(i)shí
kar(i)shí
-(i)shi
kar(i)shi
-inín
karinín
2S
-isa
karisa
-isí
karisí
-isi
karisi
ˊ–ish
kárish
–ínin
karínin
3SM
-(i)sha
kar(i)sha
-(i)shó
kar(i)shó
-(i)shi
kar(i)shi
3SF
-isa
karisa
-isó
karisó
-isi
karisi
1P
-ina
karina
-inó
karinó
-ini
karini
2P
-isiín
karisiín
-isiín
karisiín
-iseén
kariseén
–ísha/-́sha
karísha/kársha
-inína
karinína
3P
-(i)shaán
kar(i)shaán
-(i)shaán
kar(i)shaán
-(i)sheén
kar(i)sheén


Conjugation 3B

Verbs derived with the causative affix -siish- (from -ish- + -ish-). e.g. gaarsiin "to make reach".

Class I Conjugation 3B
Infinitive
-siín
gaarsiín
Verbal Noun (f.)
-siís
gaarsiís
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-siisha
gaarsiisha
-siishí
gaarsiishí
-siishi
gaarsiishi
-siinín
gaarsiiinín
2S
-siisa
gaarsiisa
-siisí
gaarsiisí
-siisi
gaarsiisi
–síish
gaarsíish
–siínin
gaarsiínin
3SM
-siisha
gaarsiisha
-siishó
gaarsiishó
-siishi
gaarsiishi
3SF
-siisa
gaarsiisa
-siisó
gaarsiisó
-siisi
gaarsiisi
1P
-siina
gaarsiina
-siinó
gaarsiinó
-siini
gaarsiini
2P
-siisiín
gaarsiisiín
-siisiín
gaarsiisiín
-siiseén
gaarsiiseén
–siísha
gaarsiísha
-siinína
gaarsiinína
3P
-siishaán
gaarsiishaán
-siishaán
gaarsiishaán
-siisheén
gaarsiisheén
Conjugation 3C

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives with the causative affix -aash- (from -aa- + -(i)sh-). e.g. bishaayn "to water, pour water (in/on)".

Class I Conjugation 3C
Infinitive
-aáyn
bishaáyn
Verbal Noun (f.)
-aás
bishaás
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-aasha
bishaasha
-aashí
bishaashí
-aashi
bishaashi
-aaynín
bishaaynín
2S
-aasa
bishaasa
-aasí
bishaasí
-aasi
bishaasi
ˊ–aash
bisháash
–aáynin
bishaáynin
3SM
-aasha
bishaasha
-aashó
bishaashó
-aashi
bishaashi
3SF
-aasa
bishaasa
-aasó
bishaasó
-aasi
bishaasi
1P
-aayna
bishaayna
-aaynó
bishaaynó
-aayni
bishaayni
2P
-aasiín
bishaasiín
-aasiín
bishaasiín
-aaseén
bishaaseén
–aásha
bishaásha
-aaynína
bishaaynína
3P
-aashaán
bishaashaán
-aashaán
bishaashaán
-aasheén
bishaasheén
Conjugation 4A

Verbs with the middle/autobenefactive affix -o/at-. When derived from Conjugation 3 verbs, the -sh- becomes -s-, giving the combined affix -so/sat-. Depending on the stem, there may or may not be reductions. e.g. xirán "to put on" (stem: xir-at-), karsán "to cook for oneself" (stem: kar-s-at-).

Class I Conjugation 4A - With reductions
Infinitive
-án
xirán
Verbal Noun (f.)
-ashó (-ashá-)
xirashó
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-ta
xirta
-tí
xir
-ti
xirti
-anín
xiranín
2S
-ata
xirata
-atí
xiratí
-ati
xirati
–ó
xiró
–ánin
xiránin
3SM
-ta
xirta
-tó
xir
-ti
xirti
3SF
-ata
xirata
-ató
xirató
-ati
xirati
1P
-anna
xiranna
-annó
xirannó
-anni
xiranni
2P
-atiín
xiratiín
-atiín
xiratiín
-ateén
xirateén
–́ ta
xírta
-anína
xiranína
3P
-taán
xirtaán
-taán
xirtaán
-teén
xirteén
Class I Conjugation 4A - Without reductions
Infinitive
-án
karsán
Verbal Noun (f.)
-ashó (-ashá-)
karsashó
Present Affirmtive Present Subjunctive Past Affirmtive Past Negtive Impertive Affirmtive Impertive Negtive
1S
-atha
karsatha
-athí
karsathí
-athi
karsathi
-anín
karsanín
2S
-ata
karsata
-atí
karsatí
-ati
karsati
–ó
karsó
–ánin
karsánin
3SM
-atha
karsatha
-athó
karsathó
-athi
karsathi
3SF
-ata
karsata
-ató
karsató
-ati
karsati
1P
-anna
karsanna
-annó
karsannó
-anni
karsanni
2P
-atiín
karsatiín
-atiín
karsatiín
-ateén
karsateén
–́ atha
kársatha
-anína
karsanína
3P
-athaán
karsathaán
-athaán
karsathaán
-atheén
karsatheén
Conjugation 4B

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally adjectives) with the affix -oo/aath- (from -aa- + -o/at-). Class III verbs all have a Conjugation 4B counterpart, which is used inchoatively and/or continuatively. They share infinitive and imperative forms. e.g. ahaan "to be" (Class III) or "to become/remain" (Conjugation 4B, stem: eh-aath-).

Class I Conjugation 4B
Infinitive
-aán
ahaán
Verbal Noun (f.)
-aashó (-aashá-)
ahaashó
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperaative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-aatha
ahaatha
-aathí
ahaathí
-aathi
ahaathi
-aanín
ahaanín
2S
-aata
ahaata
-aatí
ahaatí
-aati
ahaati
–oó
ah
–aánin
ahaánin
3SM
-aatha
ahaatha
-aathó
ahaathó
-aathi
ahaathi
3SF
-aata
ahaata
-aató
ahaató
-aati
ahaati
1P
-aanna
ahaanna
-aannó
ahaannó
-aanni
ahaanni
2P
-aatiín
ahaatiín
-aatiín
ahaatiín
-aateén
ahaateén
–aátha
ahaátha
-aanína
ahaanína
3P
-aathaán
ahaathaán
-aathaán
ahaathaán
-aatheén
ahaatheén
Conjugation 4C

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns ending in -o) with the affix -oo/ooth- (from -oo- + -o/at-). e.g. caroón "to become angry" (stem car-ooth-, from caro "anger").

Class I Conjugation 4C
Infinitive
-oón
caroón
Verbal Noun (f.)
-ooshó (-ooshá-)
carooshó
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-ootha
carootha
-oothí
caroothí
-oothi
caroothi
-oonín
caroonín
2S
-oota
caroota
-ootí
carootí
-ooti
carooti
–oó
car
–oónin
caroónin
3SM
-ootha
carootha
-oothó
caroothó
-oothi
caroothi
3SF
-oota
caroota
-ootó
carootó
-ooti
carooti
1P
-oona
caroona
-oonó
caroonó
-ooni
carooni
2P
-ootiín
carootiín
-ootiín
carootiín
-ooteén
carooteén
–oótha
caroótha
-oonína
caroonína
3P
-oothaán
caroothaán
-oothaán
caroothaán
-ootheén
carootheén
Conjugation 5A

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns) with the affix -oop- (=-oo- + -p-). e.g. duqoopi "to get old" (stem: duq-oop-)

Class I Conjugation 5A
Infinitive
-oópi
duqoópi
Verbal Noun (f.)
-oopíd (-oopíth-)
duqoopíd
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-oopa
duqoopa
-oopí
duqoopí
-oopi
duqoopi
-oopín
duqoopín
2S
-oowta
duqoowta
-oowtí
duqoowtí
-oowti
duqoowti
–oów
duqoów
–oópin
duqoópin
3SM
-oopa
duqoopa
-oopó
duqoopó
-oopi
duqoopi
3SF
-oowta
duqoowta
-oowtó
duqoowtó
-oowti
duqoowti
1P
-oowna
duqoowna
-oownó
duqoownó
-oowni
duqoowni
2P
-oowtiín
duqoowtiín
-oowtiín
duqoowtiín
-oowteén
duqoowteén
–oópa
duqoópa
-oopína
duqoopína
3P
-oopaán
duqoopaán
-oopaán
duqoopaán
-oopeén
duqoopeén
Conjugation 5B

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns) with the affix -aap- (=-aa- + -p-). e.g. maghacaápi "to name" (stem: maghac-aap-).

Class I Conjugation 5B
Infinitive
-aápi
maghacaápi
Verbal Noun (f.)
-aapíd (-aapíth-)
maghacaapíd
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-aapa
maghacaapa
-aapí
maghacaapí
-aapi
maghacaapi
-aapín
maghacaapín
2S
-aawta
maghacaawta
-aawtí
maghacaawtí
-aawti
maghacaawti
–aáw
maghacaáw
–aápin
maghacaápin
3SM
-aapa
maghacaapa
-aapó
maghacaapó
-aapi
maghacaapi
3SF
-aawta
maghacaawta
-aawtó
maghacaawtó
-aawti
maghacaawti
1P
-aawna
maghacaawna
-aawnó
maghacaawnó
-aawni
maghacaawni
2P
-aawtiín
maghacaawtiín
-aawtiín
maghacaawtiín
-aawteén
maghacaawteén
–aápa
maghacaápa
-aapína
maghacaapína
3P
-aapaán
maghacaapaán
-aapaán
maghacaapaán
-aapeén
maghacaapeén

Class II: Prefix Conjugation

The prefix conjugation is a small, closed class of verbs that conjugate by means of prefixes and vowel changes. It includes the verbs aqoon "to know", ool "to be available", oran "to say/tell", and iman "to come". They have various forms due to analogy with each other and the suffix conjugation.

Class II: aqoón
Infinitive
aqoón
aqaáni
Verbal Noun (f.)
aqoonshó
aqaaníd
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
aqaan
aqaana
aqaán
aqaaní
aqiin
aqaani
aqiín
aqaanín
2S
taqaan
taqaana
taqaán
taqaaní
taqiin
taqaani
taqiín
aqóon
aqáan
aqíin
aqaánin
3SM
yaqaan
yaqaana
yaqaán
yaqaanó
yaqiin
yaqaani
yaqiín
3SF
taqaan
taqaana
taqaán
taqaanó
taqiin
taqaani
taqiín
1P
naqaan
naqaana
naqaán
naqaanó
naqiin
naqiini
naqiín
2P
taqaaniín
taqaaniín
taqiiniín
taqaaneén
taqiiniín
aqoóna
aqaána
aqoonína
aqaanína
3P
yaqaaniín
yaqaanaán
yaqaaniín
yaqaanaán
yaqiiniín
yaqaaneén
yaqiiniín
  • ool is conjugated similarly to aqoon.
Class II: orán
Infinitive
orán
iraán
Verbal Noun (f.)
orashó
iraashó
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
ara
iraatha
orí
iraathí
iri
iraathi
oranín
iraanín
2S
tara
tiraatha
or
tiraathí
tiri
tiraathi
oró
iroów
oránin
iraánin
3SM
yara
yiraatha
oró
yiraathó
yiri
yiraathi
3SF
tara
tiraatha
or
tiraathó
tiri
tiraathi
1P
nara
niraatha
or
niraathí
niri
niraathi
2P
tiraathiín
ortiín
tiraathiín
tiraatheén
orátha
iraátha
oranína
iraanína
3P
yiraathiín
yiraathaán
oraán
yiraathaán
yiraatheén
Class II: imán
Infinitive
imán
imaán
Verbal Noun (f.)
imashó
imaashó
Present Affirmative Present Subjunctive Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
ima
imaatha
imí
imaathí
imi
imaathi
imanín
imaanín
2S
tima
timaatha
timí
timaathí
timi
timaathi
imó
imoów
imánin
imaánin
3SM
yima
yimaatha
yimó
yimaathó
yimi
yimaathi
3SF
tima
timaatha
timó
timaathó
timi
timaathi
1P
nima
nimaatha
nimó
nimaathí
nimi
nimaathi
2P
timaathiín
timiín
timaathiín
timaatheén
imátha
imaátha
imanína
imaanína
3P
yimaathiín
yimaathaán
yimiín
yimaathaán
yimaatheén

Class III: Adjectival Conjugation

The adjectival conjugation is used for adjectives and a few stative verbs such as love and hate (which in Somali are adjectives). All Class III verbs are stative, but not all stative verbs are class 3. The citation form for Class III verbs is the third person singular short present indicative. The most basic Class III verb is eh "being" (stem: eh-). The present has two forms which are used differently.

Class III: ahaán
Infinitive
ahaán
Verbal Noun (f.)
ahaashó
Present Affirmative Present Negative Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
aha
ihi
ihí
ahaay
ahaáyn
2S
taha
tihid
tihíd
ahaayti
ahoów
ahaánin
3SM
yaha
eh
(y)ahá
ahaay
3SF
taha
eh
(t)ahá
ahaayti
1P
naha
nihin
nihín
ahaayni
2P
tihiín
tih(ith)iín
tih(ith)iín
ahaayteén
ahaátha
ahaanína
3P
yihiín
ahaán
ahaán/yihiín
ahaayeén


Other Class III verbs are based off of this. e.g. cas "red" (stem: cas-).

Class III
Infinitive
-aán
casaán
Verbal Noun (f.)
-aashó (-aashá-)
casaashó
Present Affirmative Present Negative Past Affirmative Past Negative Imperative Affirmative Imperative Negative
1S
-aha
casaha
-i
casi
casí
-aay
casaay
-aanín
casaáyn
2S
-taha
castaha
-id
casid
-íd
casíd
-aayti
casaayti
–oów
casoów
–aánin
casaánin
3SM
-yaha
casyaha
-
cas
casá
-aay
casaay
3SF
-taha
castaha
-
cas
casá
-aayti
casaayti
1P
-naha
casnaha
-in
casin
-ín
casín
-aayni
casaayni
2P
-tihiín
castihiín
-(ith)iín
cas(ith)iín
-(ith)iín
cas(ith)iín
-aayteén
casaayteén
–aátha
casaátha
-aanína
casaanína
3P
-yihiín
casyihiín
-aán
casaán
-aán
casaán
-aayeén
casaayeén
  • An important (and slightly irregular) Class III verb is leh "having, owning". It is conjugated regular except for the long present, where the stem becomes lee-. An epithetic y is inserted in the first person singular. e.g. leenaha "we have/own" (instead of *lehnaha), leeyaha "I have, he has" (instead of *lehaha, *lehyaha).

Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Voice

  • Impersonal passive (with la) is used as the regular passive as well as pseudo-passive.
  • Subjunctive forms can be used adjectivally. In this usage, plural marking is optional (hence why adjectives need not be marked for plurality).
Simple Forms
  • These are forms that do not use auxiliary verbs.
Simple Present
  • Used similarly to English simple present and past perfect continuous. Generally refers to a habitual action for dynamic verbs, or an ongoing action for stative verbs.
  • Indicative:
    • Affirmative: "Present Indicative" forms - e.g. us tagha "he goes"
    • Negative: + "Present Subjunctive/Negative" - e.g. máwsan taghó "he does not go"
  • Subjunctive:
    • Affirmative: "Present Subjunctive" - e.g. nin taghó "a man who goes"
      • For Class III, the present subjunctive forms are the same as the present negative except in 3S, where it is equivalent to the present indicative with final high tone - e.g. nin necéb "a man who hates"
    • Negative: (an) + "Past Negative" - e.g. nin an taghín "a man who does not go"
Simple Past
  • Used for a simple action in the past.
  • Indicative:
    • Affirmative: "Past Affirmative" - e.g. us taghi "he went"
    • Negative: + "Past Negative" - e.g. máwsan taghín "he did not go"
  • Subjunctive:
    • Affirmative: "Past Affirmative" with final high tone - e.g. nin taghí "a man who went"
    • Negative: (an) + "Past Negative" - e.g. nin an taghín "a man who did not go" (note that this is identical to the present equivalent; for d=isambiguation, a compound form may be used instead)
Jussive
  • Affirmative:
    • First and second person: Clitic subject + "Present Subjunctive" with penultimate high tone - e.g. an tágno "let us go"
      • In the second person plural, -tiin may be replaced by -teen.
    • Third person: + "Present Subjunctive" - e.g. há taghó "let him go"
      • In the plural, the ending -aán can be -eén instead.
  • Negative:
    • yáa + "2S Imperative Negative" - e.g. yóosan tághin "let him not go"
Imperative
  • Only occurs in the second person.
  • Affirmative: "Imperative Affirmative" - e.g. tág "go!"
  • Negative: + "Imperative Negative" - e.g. há tághin "do not go!"
Potential/Assumptive
  • Used for an action/state assumed to be true or that is a possibility. It may be used for the past, present, or future.
  • Affirmative:
    • Classes I & II: Past affirmative with -i replaced by -e - e.g. us taghe "he must/may have gone"
      • Stative verbs have an additional past form, which is as described above but with -aay- inserted before the ending - e.g. us arkaaye "he must/may have seen"
    • Class III:
      • Present: Identical to the corresponding Conjugation 4B form - e.g. us ahaathe "he must/may be"
      • Past: Past affirmative with -i replaced by -e (or -e added in 1S & 3S) - e.g. us ahaaye "he must/may have been"
  • To specify the tense, compound forms may be used. The default tense is assumed to be past for dynamic verbs.
    • Future: dooni/rapi - e.g. us tághi rape "he must/may be about to go"
    • Present: -aashi (only for dynamic verbs) - e.g. us tághaashe "he must/may be going"
    • Stative verbs have distinct past and present forms - e.g us arke "he must/may see", us arkaaye "he must/may have seen"
Compound Forms
  • These are forms that use the infinitive with auxiliary verbs.
Present Progressive
  • Used for an ongoing action. Can also be used for near future.
  • Formed from: Infinitive (minus -i if present) + Conjugation 3C present endings (actually an abbreviated form of haashi "to have/hold") - e.g. us tágaasha "he is leaving", máwsan tághaashó "he is not leaving"
Past Progressive
  • Used for an ongoing action in the past.
  • Formed from: Infinitive (minus -i if present) + Conjugation 3C past endings - e.g. us tágaashi "he was leaving", máwsan tághaaynín "he was not leaving"
Near Future
  • Used for action in the near future.
  • Formed from: Infinitive + Present tense of rapi "to want" - e.g. us tághi rapa "he is about to go", máwsan tághi rapó "he is not about to go"
Near Future in Past
  • Past equivalent of the above.
  • Formed from: Infinitive + Past tense of rapi "to want" - e.g. us tághi rapi "he was going to go", máwsan tághi rapín "he was not going to go"
Distant Future
  • Used for action in the future that is more distant or less certain. For example, something in the distant future or that you will eventually do but are procrastinating.
  • Formed from: Infinitive + Present tense of dooni "to seek" - e.g. us tághi doona "he will go (eventually)", máwsan tághi doonó "he will not go"
Distant Future in Past
  • Past equivalent of the above.
  • Formed from: Infinitive + Past tense of dooni "to seek" - e.g. us tághi dooni "he was going to go", máwsan tághi doonín "he was not going to go"
Conditional
  • Formed from: Infinitive + Past tense of leh "having/owning" - e.g. us tághi lahaay "he would go", máwsan tághi lahaáyn "he would not go"
Present Habitual
  • Used for habitual actions in the present. For dynamic verbs this is similar in meaning to the simple present, but places emphasis on the repeated nature of the action.
  • Formed from: Infinitive + Present tense of jiri "to exist" - e.g. us tághi jira "he goes regularly", máwsan tághi jiró "he does not go regularly"
Past Habitual
  • Used for habitual actions in the past. In the subjunctive, it can also mean a single action in the distant past.
  • Formed from: Infinitive + Past tense of jiri "to exist" - e.g. us tághi jiri "he used to go", máwsan tághi jirín "he did not used to go", goórtíi us tághi jirí "back when he used to go" or "back when he went"
Other Compound Forms
  • kari "to be able" (present, past) → "to be able to" - e.g. us tághi kara "he can go"
  • waayi "to not find" (present, past) → "to fail to" - e.g. us tághi waayi "he failed to go"
    • In the simple present indicative, it indicates habituality (i.e. "regularly fails to").
    • In the subjunctive, it can be used instead of the simple negative subjunctive. e.g. hadíi us tághi waayó "if he does not go", ninki tághi waayí "the man who did not go"
  • la' "to lack" (present) → "to fail to" - e.g. us tághi la'yaha "he is failing to go"
    • This is used for an ongoing action (i.e. "is failing to").
  • qapi "to have" (present, past) → "to have to" - e.g. us tághi qapa "he has to go"
  • gaari "to reach" (past) → "to almost" - e.g. us tághi gaari "he almost went"

Syntax

Constituent order

The most common (and underlying) word-order is SOV.

Noun phrase

  • Cardinal numbers come before the noun. If a cardinal number is present, the singular form of the noun is used.
nimooyn "men" BUT afar nin "four men" (afar nimooyn is also acceptable)
  • Adjectives and determiners other than cardinal numbers come after the noun.
  • The definite article and other suffixed determiners attach to the noun unless it is preceded by a cardinal number, in which case they attach to the number.
nimooyki "the men" BUT afarti nin "the four men"
  • Possessive phrases can be formed in two ways:
a) Genitive construction
minki Shariif = Shariif's house (lit. the house (of) Shariif)
b) Possessive determiner
Shariif minkiis = Shariif's house (lit. Shariif his house)

Verb phrase

(Subject Pronoun) + Object Pronoun + Locative Particle + Negation (+ Clitic Subject Pronoun) + Relational Particle + Verb

Clitic subject pronouns come after the negation particle ma if it is present. Otherwise, they go at the beginning (in which case either the clitic or non-clitic forms may be used).

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Dependent clauses lack focus particles and have the verb in the subjunctive.

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Regular orthography:

  • Bini aathanki dhammaantisho wixi ish dhachaan isho oo xor eh kana siman xagi sharafti ii xuquuqi. Ilaahi wixi us sho siishi wacyi ii damiir, waana in qof walba qofki kale si walaalnimo eh suula dhaqmo.

A not-so-accurate attempt at indicating vowel frontedness and tone (acute = high tone, umlaut = front, no accent = back + low tone):

  • Bïnï ä́äthänkï dhammáantísho wixi ish dhachaán ishó oo xór áh kä́nä sïmä́n xägï sharáfti ïï xuquúqi. Ïläähï wixi us sho sïïshï wácyi ïï dämḯïr, waána ïn qof walba qófki kale sḯ walaalnímo éh süülä́ dhaqmó.

Gloss:

  • Mankind.NOM-the entirety-their OBJFOC they are_born.3P they REL free.ABS being.3 in-and equal.3 side-the dignity.GEN-the and rights.GEN-the. God.NOM OBJFOC he them gave.3S reason.ABS and conscience.ABS, VBFOCUS-and that person.NOM every person.ABS-the other way.ABS brotherhood.GEN being him-for-with act.SBJV.

For comparison, a word-for-word translation into Af Maxaa (i.e. regular Somali):

  • Bini aadanka dhammaantood waxa ay dhashaan iya[ga] oo xor ah kana siman xagga sharafta iyo xuquuqda. Ilaahay waxa uu (Ø) siiyay wacyi iyo damiir, waana in qof walba qofka kale si walaal[ti]nimo ah (Ø) ula dhaqmo.

Other resources

Swadesh list