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Adverbs cause soft mutation on following words.
Adverbs cause soft mutation on following words.
=== Verbs ===
Verb endings change for person, number and tense. The infinitive is indicated with endings '''-ar, -er, -ir'''. The '''-r''' is usually left unpronounced. Brithenig verbs are divided into three conjugations according to which infinitive ending the verb takes:
'''Canhar''' ''to sing''
'''Perdder''' ''to lose''
'''Dorfir''' ''to sleep''
In a sentence the infinitive is mutated more often than not due to the preposition '''a''' before the verb. The preposition is then dropped but the mutation is preserved. With auxiliaries the infinitive is unmutated. It is the unmutated form that is recorded in the lexicon. It used with other prepositions where English prefers to use `-ing':
'''Eo wa per yn turn inawant gweddir a'll lleith''', ''`I go for a walk before going to bed'''
'''Dibos rher-mi eo bran''', ''`After getting up I have breakfast'''
It is also used to replace the past tense:
'''Eo fi ref a ffôner-lla''', ''I got up and phoned her''
The preposition '''subr''', ''on'' is translated as 'about to' before the infinitive:
'''Eo er subr ffôner-gw''', ''I was about to phone you''.
The present indicative describes an action happening at the present time:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo gant
|eo berdd
|eo ddorf
|-
|ty gant
|ty berdd
|ty ddorf
|-
|ys cant
|ys perdd
|ys dorf
|-
|sa gant
|sa berdd
|sa ddorf
|-
|nu chanhan
|nu pherdden
|nu ddorfen
|-
|gw chanhath
|gw pherddeth
|gw ddorfith
|-
|ys/sa chanhant
|ys/sa pherddent
|ys/sa ddorfent
|}
Brithenig distinguishes different endings to go with each person and and number. The singular forms are unmarked, '''-n''' goes with '''nu''', '''-nt''' goes with '''ys''' and '''sa''' when they are plural, and '''-th''' goes with '''gw''', and '''-nt''' goes with ys and '''sa''' when they are plural. The `-t' on the third person plural ending is silent, in the spoken language there is no difference between this and the ending of the first person plural verb. Also the initial consonant undergoes soft mutation in the singular verb (except after '''ys''') or spirant mutation in the plural verb. Just as standard English always indicates the third person singular with the ending -s (he carries), so these endings must also always be used in Brithenig. If an object pronoun is inserted before the verb, then the verb always undergoes mutation, soft before a singular pronoun, spirant before a plural pronoun.
A verb is reflexive when when its subject and object are the same person: '''eo fi law''', ''I wash (myself)''; in Brithenig the object is not omitted.
'''Llawarsi''', ''to wash oneself'':
{| class="wikitable"
|eo fi law
|nu nu lawan
|-
|ty dy law
|gw 'w lawath
|-
|ys/sa si law
|ys/sa si lawant
|}
In speech the first `w' on '''gw 'w''' loses it vocalic quality and the combination is pronounced ''`gwoo'''.
Sometimes `myself', etc are used for emphasis and not as the object of a reflexive verb. In such cases it is translated as '''medissif''':
'''Eo fedissif widd llo char''', ''I see the cars myself''.
Brithenig makes the present participle by replacing the infinitive ending with '''-n''':
'''canhan''' ''singing''
'''perdden''' ''losing''
'''dorfin''' ''sleeping''
It forms a progressive tense with the verb '''ystar''', ''`to stand''':
'''Eo yst canhan''': ''I am singing''
'''Ys ystafant dorfin''': ''they were sleeping''
The present participle can also be an adjective:
'''ill of dorfin''', ''the sleeping man''
'''Lla ffuin ganhan''', ''the singing woman''
The Latin gerund ending in ''-nt'', still exists in a handful of words in Brithenig that are used as adjectives and nouns, such as '''afent''', ''wealthy'', and '''president''', ''president''. But the survival of these is an historic feature and not a productive one, in Brithenig the present participle has taken over the role of the gerund.
The past participle has the ending '''-d''':
'''canhad''' ''sung''
'''perdded''' ''lost''
'''dorfid''' ''slept''
Some past participles are irregular:
'''ffaeth''', ''done, made'', from '''ffager''', ''to do, to make'';
'''dith''', ''said'' from '''diger''', ''to say'';
'''yscrith''', ''written'' from '''yscrifer''', ''to write'';
'''duith''', ''led'' from '''duger''', ''to lead'';
'''gwist''', ''seen'' from '''gwidder''', ''to see'';
'''rhuth''', ''broken'' from '''rhumper''', ''to break'';
'''clos''', ''closed'' from '''clodder''', ''to close'';
'''morth''', ''dead'' from '''morir''', ''to die''.
The forms of the imperfect are:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ganhaf
|eo berddef
|eo ddorfif
|-
|ty ganhaf
|ty berddef
|ty ddorfif
|-
|ys canhaf
|ys perddef
|ys dorfif
|-
|sa ganhaf
|sa berddef
|sa ddorfif
|-
|nu chanafan
|nu pherddefan
|nu ddorfifan
|-
|gw chanafath
|gw pherddefath
|gw ddorfifath
|-
|ys/sa chanafant
|ys/sa pherddefant
|ys/sa ddorfifant
|}
The imperfect is used to describe an action that happened in the past that is not concluded at this point due to it being an ongoing action, an interpreted action or an habitual action. So '''Eo ganhaf''' can be interpreted as either `I sang', `I was singing', or `I used to sing'.
`I was singing' can also be translated as '''eo ystaf canhan'''.
Remember that the final '''-f''' on the singular verb is silent.
The past definite describes a completed and unrepeatable action that happened in the past. Some verb endings have been lost and replaced with the imperfect, or with a compound past tense:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ganhaf
|eo berddef
|eo ddorfif
|-
|ty ganhast
|ty berddest
|ty ddorfist
|-
|ys canhaf
|ys perddef
|ys dorfif
|-
|sa ganhaf
|sa berddef
|sa ddorfif
|-
|nu chanafan
|nu pherddefan
|nu ddorfifan
|-
|gw chanhast
|gw pherddest
|gw ddorfist
|-
|ys/sa channarent
|ys/sa pherdderent
|ys/sa ddorfirent
|}
The past definate is used particularly to describe an historical event; or in connection with a temporal adverb or adverbial phrase; or a `when' phrase; or a conclusive and final action.
There are a small number of verbs where the past definate is irregular, one such verb is '''diger''', ''to say'':
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ddis
|nu ddisen
|-
|ty ddisist
|gw ddisist
|-
|ys dis/sa ddis
|ys/sa ddisirent
|}
Other irregular verbs are:
'''Clos''' from '''clodder''', ''to close'';
'''Compruis''' from '''comprêner''', ''to understand'';
'''Cyrs''' from '''cyrrir''', ''to run'';
'''Duis''' from '''duger''', ''to lead'';
'''Lleis''' from '''lleir''', ''to read'';
'''Mis''' from '''mither''', ''to send'';
'''Tens''' from '''tener''', ''to stretch''.
The future tense is translated `I will' or `I shall'. It is formed by adding the endings '''-ai''', '''-a''', '''-a''', '''-an''', '''-ath''', '''-ant''' to the infinitive. All Brithenig verbs use these endings in the future tense:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ganarai
|eo berdderai
|eo ddorfirai
|-
|ty ganara
|ty berddera
|ty ddorfira
|-
|ys canara
|ys perddera
|ys dorfira
|-
|sa ganara
|sa berddera
|sa ddorfira
|-
|nu chanaran
|nu pherdderan
|nu ddorfiran
|-
|gw chanarath
|gw pherdderath
|gw ddorfirath
|-
|ys/sa chanarant
|ys/sa pherdderant
|ys/sa ddorfirant
|}
For the immediate future tense Brithenig can use '''gweddir''', ''`go''' with the infinitive tense of the verb:
'''Eo wa wenir gwsc''', ''I am going to come with you''.
The conditional tense translates to mean `might', `could', `would' or `should'. It is formed by adding a '''-ew''' ending to the infinitive:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ganarew
|eo berdderew
|eo ddorfirew
|-
|ty ganarew
|ty berdderew
|ty ddorfirew
|-
|ys canarew
|ys perdderew
|ys dorfirew
|-
|sa ganarew
|sa berdderew
|sa ddorfirew
|-
|nu chanarewn
|nu pherdderewn
|nu ddorfirewn
|-
|gw chanarewth
|gw pherdderewth
|gw ddorfirewth
|-
|ys/sa chanarewnt
|ys/sa pherdderewnt
|ys/sa ddorfirewnt
|}
The conditional is used to indicate a future tense to a past action. It is used in indirect speech after a verb used to communicate ideas:
'''Ys yscrifera yn garth''' ''He will write a letter''
'''Ys digef (ke) ys yscriferew yn garth''' ''He said that he would write a letter''
The conditional tense is also used in a sentence after an `if' clause:
'''Se eo w h-er, eo ffagerew rhen''' ''If I were you, I would not do it.''
'''Se eo ai gwist-llo, eo afrew parolad a lle''' ''If I had seen him, I would have spoken to him.''
If the second clause does not have the sense of an action ''not'' happening then another tense replaces the conditional:
'''Se ys gwen eo barolarai a lle''' ''If he comes I will speak to him''.
The conditional is also used in describing non-specific repetative action in the past:
'''I llo ddiwrn llâ nu h-amblarewn sempr a'll castr''', ''In those days we would always walk into town'', or, ''In those days we always used to walk into town''.
The relative pronoun '''ke''', ''`who, what, which, that''' is often omitted in Brithenig, especially the spoken language. '''Ke''' is the most common form of the relative pronoun. The alternative '''ill cal''' is used to avoid ambiguity in a sentence. It is variable in gender and number and cannot be omitted. '''Ke''' is more often encountered in speech.
`Whose' can be translated by '''ke sew''' before the noun or by '''di'll cal''' after it. `When' and `where' are translated respectively as '''can''' and '''ill llog (ke)'''.
Brithenig uses disjunctive pronouns in dependent clauses:
'''Lla garth (k') eo yscrifef lla''', ''The letter that I wrote''
'''Lla ffuin (k') eo barolaf seg''', ''The woman that I spoke with''
The subjunctive tenses are no longer productive in modern Brithenig. They only survive in proverbial phrases such as:
'''Can in Rhufein, ffâ si llo Rhufan ffeigant''', ''When in Rome, do as the Romans do''.
There are two subjunctive tenses, past and present. The present tense is distinctive that it includes i-mutation in all three conjunctions, if only partially in the '''-ar''' conjunction. ''A, e,'' and ''o'' in the stem become ''ei'', ''u'' becomes ''y'', and ''aw'', when it occurs, becomes ''ew''; ''i'' is unaffected. The vowels in the ending also change, for '''-er''' and '''-ir''' verbs it becomes ''a'', while for '''-ar''' verbs it becomes ''e''.
{| class="wikitable"
|eo gant
|eo beirdd
|eo ddeirf
|-
|ty gant
|ty beirdd
|ty ddeirf
|-
|ys cant
|ys peidd
|ys deirf
|-
|sa gant
|sa beirdd
|sa ddeirf
|-
|nu cheinhen
|nu pheirddan
|nu ddeirfan
|-
|gw cheinheth
|gw pheirddath
|gw ddeirfath
|-
|ys/sa chanhent
|ys/sa pheirddant
|ys/sa ddeirfant
|-
|}
The past subjunctive is simpler and is made by infixing '''-ss(e)''' between the normal stem and the ending:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ganhas
|eo berddes
|eo ddorfis
|-
|ty ganhas
|ty berddes
|ty ddorfis
|-
|ys canhas
|ys perddes
|ys dorfis
|-
|sa ganhas
|sa berddes
|sa dorfis
|-
|nu chanassen
|nu pherddessen
|nu ddorfissen
|-
|gw chanasseth
|gw pherddesseth
|gw ddorfisseth
|-
|ys/sa chanassent
|ys/sa pherddessent
|ys/sa ddorfissent
|}
Compound tenses are made with two new verbs, '''esser''', ''`to be'<nowiki/>'' and '''afer''', ''`to have'''. They are irregular and do not conform to the three conjugations that have been given so far. Present tense:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo su
|nu sun
|eo ai
|nu hafen
|-
|ty es
|gw hes
|ty a
|gw hafeth
|-
|ys/sa es
|ys/sa sunt
|ys/s' a
|ys/sa hant
|}
Participles:
{| class="wikitable"
|Present:
|Past:
|-
|essen
|ystad (from '''ystar''', ''`to stand')''
|-
|afen
|afyd
|}
Imperfect:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo er
|nu h-eran
|eo afef
|nu h-afefan
|-
|ty er
|gw h-erath
|ty afef
|gw h-afefath
|-
|ys/sa er
|ys/sa h-erant
|ys/s' afef
|ys/sa h-afefant
|}
Past Definite:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ffew
|nu ffewns
|eo afew
|nu h-afewn
|-
|ty ffewst
|gw ffewth
|ty afew
|gw h-afewth
|-
|ys/sa ffew
|ys/sa ffewrent
|ys/sa afew
|ys/sa h-afewrent
|}
Future:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo serai
|nu seran
|eo afrai
|nu h-afran
|-
|ty sera
|gw serath
|ty afra
|nu h-afrath
|-
|ys/sa sera
|ys/sa serant
|ys/sa afra
|ys/sa h-afrant
|}
Present Subjunctive:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo sia
|nu sian
|eo ai
|nu h-aian
|-
|ty sia
|gw siath
|ty ai
|gw h-aiath
|-
|ys/sa sia
|ys/sa siant
|ys/sa ai
|ys/sa h-aiant
|}
'''Sia''' is pronounced as ''sha'' in the present subjunctive of 'to be'.
Past Subjunctive:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ffews
|nu ffewssen
|eo afews
|nu h-afewssen
|-
|ty ffews
|gw ffewsseth
|ty afews
|gw h-afewsseth
|-
|ys/sa ffews
|ys/sa ffewssent
|ys/sa afews
|ys/sa h-afewssent
|}
'''Gweddir''', ''to go'' is irregular in the present tense:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo wa
|nu wan
|-
|ty wa
|gw wath
|-
|ys gwa/sa wa
|ys/sa want
|}
Otherwise the verb is regular and uses the longer stem.
The word for `not' is '''rhen'''. It comes after the verb phrase:
'''eo su rhen''', ''`I am not'''
With verbs beginning with p, t, c, b, d, g, the nasal mutation is used on all verbs beginning with these letters when they are followed by a negative adverb:
'''Eo nghant rhen''', ''I do not sing''.
'''Gw mherddefan rhen''', ''you did not lose''.
'''Ys norfira rhen''', ''he will not sleep''.
Similar to '''rhen''' is '''nonc''', ''`never'''. In questions 'ever' is translated as '''nonc''':
'''E'gw ystad nonc ci inawant?''' ''<nowiki/>'Have you ever been here before?'''
'''No, eo su ystad nonc ci inawant''', ''No, I have never been here before.''
'''Rhen''' is also used before nouns, '''rhen llaeth''', ''`no milk'''.
`There is' or `there are' is '''sa es''':
'''Sa es yn char''', ''`There are some cars'''.
When an object follows a negative verb then the preposition '''di''' is inserted between the verb and the following noun. Literally this would be translated as 'none of':
'''Sa es rhen di yn char''', ''<nowiki/>'There aren't any cars'''


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
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