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Van (''havan'' [ʔavãn]) is a small language designed for rapid private use. It is very sparse in its phonology and inflections. | Van (''havan'' [ʔavãn]) is a small language designed for rapid private use. It is very sparse in its phonology and inflections. | ||
==Phonetics and phonology== | ==Phonetics and phonology== | ||
===Spelling=== | |||
The alphabet consists of the letters: '''a e h i j k l m n ń o p r s t v''' . | |||
* ⟨ń⟩ is a velar nasal [ŋ] | |||
* ⟨h⟩ is a glottal stop [ʔ] | |||
* ⟨v⟩ is a labiodental approximant [ʋ] | |||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | ||
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! rowspan="1" | Palatal | ! rowspan="1" | Palatal | ||
! rowspan="1" | Velar | ! rowspan="1" | Velar | ||
! rowspan="1" | Glottal | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | Nasal | ! colspan="2" | Nasal | ||
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| n | | n | ||
| | | | ||
| | | ŋ | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | Stop | ! colspan="2" | Stop | ||
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| | | | ||
| k | | k | ||
| ʔ | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | Fricative | ! colspan="2" | Fricative | ||
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| s | | s | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
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| | | | ||
| r | | r | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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|l | |l | ||
|j | |j | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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|- align="center" | |- align="center" | ||
! Mid | ! Mid | ||
| || || o | | e|| || o | ||
|- align="center" | |- align="center" | ||
! Open | ! Open | ||
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Vowels are nasalised before nasal consonants (/a/ → [ã], /i/ → [ɛ̃], /o/ → [ɔ̃]), backed and lowered before velar (/a/ → [ɑ̞], /o/ → [ɔ]), raised before j (/a/ → [æ], /o/ → [u]). | Vowels are nasalised before nasal consonants (/a/ → [ã], /i/ → [ɛ̃], /o/ → [ɔ̃]), backed and lowered before velar (/a/ → [ɑ̞], /o/ → [ɔ]), raised before j (/a/ → [æ], /o/ → [u]). | ||
===Phonotactics=== | ===Phonotactics=== | ||
====Syllable==== | ====Syllable==== | ||
The typical syllable in Van is composed of a consonantal onset, a vocalic nucleus, and a consonantal coda. Occasionally, a syllable may be phonemically onset- or codaless; traditionally in Van terminology these are termed ''faulty''. Syllables of this form are typically found as affixes. Phonetically, they have as their onset either a glottal stop [ʔ] or a copy of the preceding syllable's final consonant, e.g. vana [vãn.na] 'speak' (< van). Note: A coda is not required at the end of sentences. | The typical syllable in Van is composed of a consonantal onset, a vocalic nucleus, and a consonantal coda (CVC). Occasionally, a syllable may be phonemically onset- or codaless; traditionally in Van terminology these are termed ''faulty''. Syllables of this form are typically found as affixes. Phonetically, they have as their onset either a glottal stop [ʔ] or a copy of the preceding syllable's final consonant, e.g. vana [vãn.na] 'speak' (< van). Note: A coda is not required at the end of sentences. | ||
====Word==== | ====Word==== | ||
The word is composed out of syllables but has additional properties that set it apart. A word may only end with a | The word is composed out of syllables but has additional properties that set it apart. A word may only end with either a vowel, sonorant, or a sibilant. | ||
===Morphophonology=== | ===Morphophonology=== | ||
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Some examples: | Some examples: | ||
::# The verbal markers '''-a''', '''-e''' always copy the nearest preceding consonant, e.g., /vana/ -> [vãnna] ‘speak’, /tore/ -> [dor.re] ‘to be excited’. Note: No ʔ is appended as the vowel is word final. | ::# The verbal markers '''-a''', '''-e''' always copy the nearest preceding consonant, e.g., /vana/ -> [vãnna] ‘speak’, /tore/ -> [dor.re] ‘to be excited’. Note: No ʔ is appended as the vowel is word final. | ||
::# The definite and {{sc|possessum}} marker '''a-''' conjures up a glottal stop, e.g. /avan/ -> [ | ::# The definite and {{sc|possessum}} marker '''a-''' conjures up a glottal stop, e.g. /avan/ -> [ʔaʋãn] ‘the speech’. | ||
==Morphology== | ==Morphology== | ||
===Nouns=== | |||
Nominal morphology is sparse in Van. Number is not marked, but definiteness and state of possession is. Both definiteness and alienable possession is marked with the prefix '''ha-'''. Inalienable possession is not marked at all. | |||
===Demonstratives and quantifiers=== | |||
===Pronouns=== | |||
===Verbal inflection=== | |||
Verbs are morphologically simple in Van and the few inflections which exist compound in an agglutinative fashion according to the following principle: '''stem''' + '''mode''' + '''voice'''. | |||
====Mode==== | |||
Verbs in Van distinguish two modes: dynamic ({{sc|dyn}}) and stative ({{sc|stat}}) | |||
All verbs expressing a dynamic meaning have a suffix '''-a''' while stative verbs have an '''-e'''. | |||
{| | {| | ||
|dynamic | |dynamic | ||
|stative | |stative | ||
|- | |- | ||
|vana (speak) | |||
| vana (speak) | |kore (love) | ||
| kore (love) | |||
|} | |} | ||
The distinction between dynamic and stative is most readily gleaned in the example opposition ''kore tan mir, pa-kon'' ‘I am in love with you, bacon’ (state) vs. ''kora tan mir, pa-kon'' ‘I am loving you, bacon’ (action). | |||
====Voice==== | |||
Two voices are recognised in Van, the active ({{sc|act}}) and the nonactive ({{sc|nonact}}). Of these, the default voice is the active one which is unmarked. The nonactive is indicated by an '''-s''' suffix. | |||
===Derivational morphology=== | |||
====Derived verbs==== | |||
It is quite easy to create new verbs: any noun or stem can be turned into a verb by adding the appropriate mode suffix ('''-a''' for dynamic verbs or '''-e''' for stative verbs). | |||
====Derived nouns==== | |||
There are several semantically-restricted options for creating a new noun from a verb. | |||
*'''Nomen agentis''': prefix ''li-'' to the stem of the verb. Thus, ''love'' ‘alive, living’ whose stem is ''lov-'' becomes ''lilov'' ‘being’. | |||
*'''Nomen actionis''': add the definite marker to the stem of the verb. ''laja'' ‘sing’ → ''halaj'' ‘the act of singing’ | |||
*'''Nomen instrumentis''': instruments or tools that go with a verb; marked with the suffix ''-ka''; ''jasa'' ‘to watch’ → ''jasaka'' ‘glasses’ | |||
*'''Nomen obiecti''': suffix ''-las''; added to transitive verbs denote the object of an action. ''laja'' ‘sing’ → ''lajalas'' ‘song’ | |||
There is one operation available to derive nouns from nouns: the collective ({{sc|COLL}}) reduplication, which usually a full initial L→R reduplication. However, for polysyllabic words, only the first CV pair is copied. | |||
*'''ha-tav''' ‘a feeling’ → '''ha-tatav''' ‘sentiments, emotional state’ | |||
*'''ha-tok''' ‘a chicken’ → '''ha-toktok''' {{CIPA|[ʔa̰d̪ɔg̚d̪ɔ̰k̞͡x̞]}} ‘poultry’ | |||
*'''ha-lilov''' ‘a being’ → '''ha-lililov''' ‘humanity’ ( and not **ha-lilovlilov) | |||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
===Constituent order=== | ===Constituent order=== | ||
The unmarked word order in Van is predominantly (87%) verb-subject-object or '''VSO'''. | The unmarked word order in Van is predominantly (87%) verb-subject-object or '''VSO'''. The remaining occurrences (13%) are subject-verb-object or '''SVO'''. There appears to be no particular identifiable reason for what makes a sentence SVO or not. | ||
===Phrase order=== | ===Phrase order=== | ||
==== | ====The noun phrase==== | ||
Numerals and determiners precede their head nouns. | Numerals and determiners precede their head nouns. | ||
:[ʔɛ̃ŋa | |||
{| | (1.) | ||
::[ʔɛ̃ŋa tʰãm ʔadɔk̚ tʰãn] | |||
:{| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|''hińa''||'' | |''hińa''||''tam''||''ha-tok''||''tan''|| | ||
|- | |- | ||
|{{sc|prox.det}}||five||{{sc|poss}}-chicken||{{sc|1sg}}|| | |{{sc|prox.det}}||five||{{sc|poss}}-chicken||{{sc|1sg}}|| | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
:‘Those five chicken (are) mine’ | |||
==== | =====Possessive constructions===== | ||
Possessors follow their possessum. | Possessors follow their possessum. | ||
: | |||
{| | (2.) | ||
:{| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|''ha-van''||''mir'' | |''ha-van''||''mir'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
:‘Your language’ | |||
Intrinsically possessed nouns or obligatorily possessed nouns like ''vas'' ‘head’ do not get prefixed with the possessive marker. | |||
:{| | |||
|- | |||
|''vas''||''tan'' | |||
|- | |||
|head||{{sc|1sg}} | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
:‘My head’ | |||
===Verb phrase=== | ===Verb phrase=== | ||
The prototypical verb phrases is composed of the phrasal head, any enclitics, subject pronoun. | |||
====Intransitive==== | |||
[ | :{| | ||
{| | |''karesi tan'' | ||
|- | |||
|''kar-e=si''||''tan'' | |||
|- | |||
|grey-{{sc|stat}}={{sc|little}}||{{sc|1sg}} | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
:‘I'm a little bit grey’ | |||
====Transitive==== | |||
A transitive verb requires at least an object (O) in addition to the previous type. | |||
:{| | |||
|''lana tan ha-tok'' | |||
|- | |||
|''lan-a''||''tan''||''ha-tok'' | |||
|- | |||
|cook-{{sc|dyn}}||{{sc|1sg}}||{{sc|def-}}chicken | |||
|} | |||
:‘I cook the chook’ | |||
A transitive verb with discarded object and second argument promotion with the directive marker '''-e'''. | |||
:{| | |||
|''nimańa laja tan mire'' | |||
|- | |||
|''ni=mań-a''||''laj-a''||''tan''||''mir=e'' | |||
|- | |||
|{{sc|perhaps}}=try-{{sc|dyn}}||sing-{{sc|dyn}}||{{sc|1sg}}||{{sc|2sg}}={{sc|dir}} | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
:‘Perhaps I should try to sing for you’ | |||
====Non-active constructions==== | |||
In non-active constructions (autostative, passive, reciprocal, mediopassive; all formed with [-s]) the word order remains the same as in the default word order. | |||
(3.) ''autostative'' | |||
:{| | |||
|''nor-e-s''||''tan'' | |||
|- | |||
|joy-{{sc|stat-nonact}}||{{sc|1sg}} | |||
|} | |||
:‘I am happy with myself’ | |||
(4.) ''passive'' | |||
:{| | |||
|''not-a-s''||''ras'' | |||
|- | |||
|eat-{{sc|dyn-nonact}}||{{sc|3sg.m}} | |||
|} | |||
:‘He is being eaten’ | |||
(5.) ''reciprocal'' | |||
:{| | |||
|''pok-a-s''||''sor''||''ha'' | |||
|- | |||
|strike-{{sc|dyn-nonact}}||{{sc|3sg.f}}||{{sc|pl}} | |||
|} | |||
:‘They (f.) strike each other’ | |||
====Chain construction==== | |||
When two verbs follow each other in a modifying-action relationship, the main verb (modifying verb) precedes the secondary verb (action). | |||
(6.) | |||
:{| | |||
|''mań-a''||''laj-a''||''mir''||''tan''|| | |''mań-a''||''laj-a''||''mir''||''tan''|| | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
:‘You are trying to sing to me’ | |||
====Causative constructions==== | |||
This relationship also holds true for causative constructions where the causative precedes the other verb. | |||
(7.) | |||
:{| | |||
|''vań-a''||''nor-e''||''tan''||''mir''|| | |||
|- | |||
|cause-{{sc|dyn}}||joy-{{sc|stat}}||{{sc|1sg}}||{{sc|2sg}} | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
:‘I make you happy’ | |||
(8.) | |||
:{| | |||
|''vel-a=vaj''||''mer-e=si''||''mir''||''tan''|| | |||
|- | |||
|strike-{{sc|dyn}}={{sc|suddenly}}||sorrowful-{{sc|stat}}={{sc|little}}||{{sc|2sg}}||{{sc|1sg}} | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
:‘You hit me suddenly and (it makes me) a bit sad’ | |||
====Comparative constructions==== | |||
Comparative constructions are created with the conjunction ''mar'' in the pattern {{sc|VP }} '''mar''' {{sc|VP}}. | |||
The second {{sc|VP}} can be replaced with the common pro-verb ''vań-'' as in the second example. | |||
(9.) | |||
:{| | |||
|''par-e''||''johana''||''mar''||''par-e''||''nansi'' | |||
|- | |||
|red-{{sc|stat}}||Johanna||than||red-{{sc|stat}}||Nancy | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
:‘Johanna is redder than Nancy’ | |||
(10.) | |||
:{| | |||
|''tanir-e''||''tavi''||''mar''||''vań-e''||''mak'' | |||
|- | |||
|rise-{{sc|stat}}||David||than||{{sc|proverb}}-{{sc|stat}}||Mark | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
:‘David is taller than Mark’ | |||
==Sample wordlist== | ==Sample wordlist== | ||
* sa- ‘not’, prefix | * sa- ‘not’, prefix | ||
* ta- ‘good’, prefix | * ta- ‘good’, prefix | ||
* ni- ‘perhaps’, prefix | |||
* -si ‘a little bit’, suffix | |||
* -ke ‘fast, quickly’, suffix | |||
* -vaj ‘suddenly’, suffix | |||
* no- general intensifier, prefix | * no- general intensifier, prefix | ||
* vańa, -e, dummy verb, a pro-verb. | * vańa, -e, dummy verb, a pro-verb. Also the causative dummy verb. | ||
* ta ‘from’, adverb | |||
* jin ‘here’ | * jin ‘here’ | ||
* laja ‘sing’ | * laja ‘sing’ | ||
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* van ‘speech’ | * van ‘speech’ | ||
* nar ‘death’ | * nar ‘death’ | ||
* sak ‘field’ | |||
* mare ‘upright’ | |||
* lana ‘whisper’, -e ‘be quiet’ | |||
<!-- Category Time --> | <!-- Category Time --> | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Languages]] | ||
[[Category:Van]] | [[Category:Van]] |