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² Voiceless stops and affricates are voiced before voiced consonants except /v/.
² Voiceless stops and affricates are voiced before voiced consonants except /v/.


³ Voiceless fricatives are voiced when they occur between voiced sounds (including vowels). To remain unvoiced in such environments, they can be written doubled.
³ Voiceless fricatives are voiced when they occur between voiced sounds (including vowels). To remain unvoiced in such environments, they can be written doubled. Such doubling is maintained in a word's stem even when it occurs word-finally.


⁴ Free variation (depending on speaker and dialect).
⁴ Free variation (depending on speaker and dialect).
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|
|
|-->
|-->
This palatalization is also known as "obstruent palatalization".
In this article, obstruent palatalization is represented as {j-o}


====Second palatalization====
====Second palatalization====
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*l > ľ
*l > ľ
*r > ř
*r > ř
By default, "palatalization" refers to the second palatalization unless specified otherwise.


In this article, palatalization is represented as {j}.
====U-umlaut====
====U-umlaut====
*a > o
*a > o
*ă, â > u
*ă, â > u
 
Represented as {u}.
====I-umlaut====
====I-umlaut====
*a > e
*a > e
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*Otherwise: o > e
*Otherwise: o > e
*u > i
*u > i
Represented as {i}.
====Disappearing ''-g-''====
Some verbs have a stem-final ''-g-'' that appears in certain morphological environments and disappears in others.


====Disappearing ''-g-''====
The environments where ''-g-'' appears are:
*Some verbs have a stem-final ''-g-'' that appears in certain morphological environments and disappears in others.
*Strong verbs: In the past participle and the plural forms of the past tense.
*Preterite-present verbs: In the <!--infinitive, -->present participle, imperative, and the plural forms of the present tense.
 
In this article, disappearing ''-g-'' is represented as {g}.


====Disappearing ''-j-, -v-,'' and palatalization====
====Disappearing ''-j-, -v-,'' and palatalization====
*Some consonant-final verbs, nouns, and adjectives have a final ''-j-'' or ''-v-'' or a palatalization of the final consonant which appear before vowels but are lost in other environments.
Some consonant-final verbs, nouns, and adjectives have a final ''-j-'' or ''-v-'' or a palatalization of the final consonant which appear before vowels but are lost in other environments.


====Dental past suffix====
====Dental past suffix====
The dental past suffix varies between ''-t-, -d-,'' and ''-ð-'' depending on the context.
The dental past suffix varies between ''-t-, -d-,'' and ''-ð-'' depending on the context.
*''-t-'' > after orthographic voiceless consonants, and after disappearing ''-g-'' (which is dropped in this environment)
*''-t-'' > after orthographic voiceless consonants, and after disappearing ''-g-'' (which is dropped in this environment)
*''-d-'' > after nasals and ''l''
**Expected *''-tt-'' is simplified to ''-t-''.
*''-d-'' > after ''-n-, -m-, -l-, -d-'' and ''-ð-''.
**Expected *''-dd-'' and *''-ðd-'' are simplified to ''-d-''.
*''-ð-'' > otherwise
*''-ð-'' > otherwise


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|}
|}
====Demonstratives====
====Demonstratives====
These can also function as determiners.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Near demonstrative
|+ Near demonstrative
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! rowspan="2"| Singular
! rowspan="2"| Singular
! nom./acc.
! nom./acc.
| ses
| þess
| sesă
| þessă
| set
| þet
|-
|-
! gen./dat.
! gen./dat.
| ses
| þess
| seši
| þešši
| sesu
| þessu
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
! nom./acc.
| sešir
| þeššir
| sesăr
| þessăr
| ses
| þess
|-
|-
! gen./dat.
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| sesum
| colspan="3"| þessum
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
|}
|}
====Other pronouns====
====Other pronouns====
Note that these pronouns can also function as determiners.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Relative/interrogative/indefinite pronoun
|+ Relative/interrogative/indefinite pronoun
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| ândr
| ândr
| ândră
| ândră
| ândrt/ândăt
| ândăt
|-
|-
! gen./dat.
! gen./dat.
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|-
|-
|}
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ ''ald'' "all, every, everyone"
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Singular
! nom./acc.
| ald
| aldă
| alt
|-
! gen./dat.
| alds
| aldři
| oldu
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| aldzir
| aldăr
| old
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| oldum
|-
|}
===Adjectives===
====Declension====
Adjectives can be declined either strong or weak. Weak forms are used when modifying definite nouns, while strong forms are used otherwise. However, certain adjectives can only take one of the two patterns irrespective of definiteness.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Strong adjective declension
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Singular
! nom./acc.
| -
| -ă
| -t¹
|-
! gen./dat.
| -s²
| -(ř)i³
| {u}-u
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| -ir
| -ăr
| {u}-
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| {u}-(u)m⁴
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ Dental consonants (''-t-, -d-, -þ-, -ð-,'' and ''-n-'') assimilate to ''-t'' and are dropped.
² ''-s'' is dropped after postalveolar consonants.
³ ''-ř-'' is dropped after the consonants ''-r-, -s-, -n-,'' and ''-l-'', which are then palatalized in its stead.
⁴ ''-u-'' is dropped after a vowel.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Weak adjective declension
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Singular
! nom./acc.
| colspan="3"| -ă¹
|-
! gen./dat.
| -ă¹
| -u
| -ă¹
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| colspan="3" rowspan="2"| -u
|-
! gen./dat.
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ ''-ă'' is dropped after a vowel.
====Placement====
Adjectives may precede or follow the nouns they modify. When a weak adjective is used with a definite noun, the definite article is attached to whichever word comes last (whether it is the noun or adjective).
====Comparative and superlative====
* Comparative: ''mer'' "more" + adjective
* Superlative: ''mest'' "most" + adjective
* Some adjectives have irregular comparatives and superlatives.
===Numbers===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Numbers
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
! 0
| nul; zero
| nuldă
|-
! 1
| en, enă, et (en)
| first
|-
! 2
| tvir, tver, tvau (tvo)
| tvoðă
|-
! 3
| þřir, þřor, þřu (þři)
| þřiză
|-
! 4
| fjořir, fjorăr, fjor (fjor)
| fjorðă
|-
! 5
| fim
| fimtă
|-
! 6
| ses
| setă
|-
! 7
| šau
| šundă
|-
! 8
| otă
| otândă
|-
! 9
| niu
| nindă
|-
! 10
| ciu
| cindă
|-
! 11
| enpociu
| enpocindă
|-
! 12
| tvopociu
| tvopocindă
|-
! 13
| þřipociu
| þřipocindă
|-
! 14
| fjorpociu
| fjorpocindă
|-
! 15
| fimpociu
| fimpocindă
|-
! 20
| tvociu
| tvocindă
|-
! 21
| tvociu ok en
| tvocindă ok first
|-
! 30
| þřiciu
| þřicindă
|-
! 40
| fjorciu
| fjorcindă
|-
! 50
| fimciu
| fimcindă
|-
! 100
| hundrăð
| hundrădă
|-
! 101
| hundrăð ok en
| hundrădă ok first
|-
! 200
| tvau hundruð
| tvau hundrădă
|-
! 1000
| þusund
| þusundă
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ All ordinal numbers are weak adjectives, except ''first'' which can be strong or weak.
² ''En'' (1) is declined as a strong adjective. ''Tvir'' (2) is declined as the plural third person pronoun (''þir''). ''Fjořir'' (4) is declined as a plural strong adjective. ''Þřir'' (3) is declined irregularly. These numbers (1-4) also have indeclinable variants.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Declension of ''en'' "one"
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Singular
! nom./acc.
| en
| enă
| et
|-
! gen./dat.
| ens
| eňi
| ens
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| eňir
| enăr
| en
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| enum
|-
! colspan="2"| Indeclinable
| colspan="3"| en
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Declension of ''tvir'' "two"
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| tvir
| tver
| tvau
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| tvem
|-
! colspan="2"| Indeclinable
| colspan="3"| tvo
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Declension of ''þřir'' "three"
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| þřir
| þřor
| þřu
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| þřim
|-
! colspan="2"| Indeclinable
| colspan="3"| þři
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Declension of ''fjořir'' "four"
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| fjořir
| fjorăr
| fjor
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| fjorum
|-
! colspan="2"| Indeclinable
| colspan="3"| fjor
|}
''Hundrăð'' (100) and ''þusund'' (1000) are declined as neuter nouns. All other numbers are indeclinable.
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
*The citation form is the singular nominative
====Declension====
*The citation form is the nominative-accusative singular.
*Pluralization of regular masculine nouns:
*Pluralization of regular masculine nouns:
**Ending in consonant: add ''-ă''.  
**Ending in consonant: add ''-ă''.  
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**Ending in ''-i'': replace ''-i'' with ''-ăr''.  
**Ending in ''-i'': replace ''-i'' with ''-ăr''.  
**Ending in ''-u'': add ''-r''.
**Ending in ''-u'': add ''-r''.
*Regular neuter nouns undergo u-umlaut in the plural. The only vowels affected are ''a, ă'', and ''â''.
*Regular neuter nouns undergo u-umlaut in the plural.
**''a'' > ''o''
*Some nouns (known as consonant stems) have irregular plurals involving i-umlaut. Examples:
**''ă, â'' > ''u''
**''mând'' "man" (M) > ''mindă''
*Some nouns have a ''-j-'', palatalization, or ''-v-'' that appears before endings beginning in a vowel but is dropped otherwise.
**''foðr'' "father" (M) > ''feðră''
*A few nouns (known as consonant stems) have irregular plurals, mostly involving either i-umlaut or reversal of u-umlaut (i.e. singular has u-umlaut that is lost in plural). Some examples of common nouns with irregular plurals are listed below:
**''moðr'' "mother" (F) > ''meðrăr''
**mând (M) > mindă
**''šistr'' "sister" (F) > ''šistrăr''
**foðr (M) > feðră
**''broðr'' "brother" (M) > ''breðră''
**moðr (F) > meðrăr
**''dotr'' "daughter" (F) > ''detrăr''
**šistr (F) > šistrăr
**''fot'' "foot" (M) > ''fetă''
**broðr (M) > breðră
**''tund'' "tooth" (F) > ''tindăr''
**dotr (F) > detrăr
**''not'' "night" (F) > ''netăr''
**fot (M) > fetă
*A class of feminine nouns known as u-stems have u-umlaut in the singular that is reversed in the plural. Examples:
**tund (F) > tindăr
**''džov'' "gift" (F) > ''džavăr''
**not (F) > netăr
**''corn'' "lake" (F) > ''carnăr''
**džov (F) > džavăr
**corn (F) > carnăr
* Formation of genitive-dative:
* Formation of genitive-dative:
**Masculine and neuter consonant stems: The genitive-dative singular is identical to the nominative-accusative singular.
**Other nouns: The genitive-dative singular is identical to the nominative-accusative plural.
** The genitive-dative plural is always identical to the nominative-accusative plural.
** The genitive-dative plural is always identical to the nominative-accusative plural.
** The genitive-dative singular is formed as below:
***Masculine and neuter nouns: identical to the nominative-accusative singular.
***Feminine nouns: identical to the nominative-accusative plural.
====Definiteness====
A noun is made definite by suffixing the definite article ''-in'' (declined as the definite pronoun) to the noun. Note that the following changes occur:
*The ''-i-'' of the definite article is dropped after vowels and after the ''-r'' of the feminine plural/genitive-dative.
**Note: The ''-r'' of the feminine plural/genitive-dative is not pronounced before the definite article. For example, ''džavărnăr'' "the gifts (nom./acc.)" is pronounced as if it were written ''*džavănăr''.
*The final consonant of the noun is palatalized before undropped ''-i-'' of the definite article whenever possible.
===Verbs===
====Verb stems====
A verb can have up to 5 stems:
*'''Primary present stem (represented as <Pr>)'''
**Used in the plural present tense and the imperative.
*'''Secondary present stem (represented as <Pr`>)'''
**Used in the present participle and singular present tense.
**Either identical to the primary present stem, or derived from it via i-umlaut.
*'''Primary past stem (represented as <Pa>)'''
**Used in the plural past tense.
**For weak verbs and preterite-present verbs, it is formed from the primary present stem with the ending ''-ð-'' (or one of its allomorphs).
**For strong verbs, it is formed by ablaut. Some strong verbs additionally add the ending ''-r-'' followed by weak verb endings.
*'''Secondary past stem (represented as <Pa`>)'''
**Used in the singular past tense.
**Identical to the primary past stem for the majority of verbs.
*'''Past participle stem (represented as <PP>)'''
**Used in the past participle.
**For weak verbs and preterite-present verbs, it is identical to the past stem.
**For strong verbs, it is formed by ablaut along with the ending ''-in-''.
====Verb classes====
Verbs fall into 3 main categories:
# Strong verbs
# Weak verbs
# Preterite-present verbs
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs are characterized by ablaut variations between the present, past, and past participle stems.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Strong verb declension
! colspan="7" | Non-finite forms
|-
! colspan="3"| Form
! colspan="2"| Active
! colspan="2"| Middle
|-
<!--
! colspan="3" | Infinitive
| colspan="2"| <Pr`>-(ă)
| colspan="2"| <Pr`>-(ă)sk
|-
-->
! colspan="3"| Present participle
| colspan="2"| <Pr`>-(â)ndă
| colspan="2"| <Pr`>-(â)ndziskă
|-
! colspan="3"| Past participle
| colspan="2" | <PP>-({j}i)n
| colspan="2" | <PP>-({j}i)nsk
|-
! colspan="7"| Finite forms
|-
! rowspan="2"| Person/<br /> Number
! colspan="2"| Present
! colspan="2"| Past
! colspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! Active
! Middle
! Active
! Middle
! Active
! Middle
|-
! 1S
| <Pr`>-
| rowspan="3"| <Pr`>-sk
| <Pa`>-
| rowspan="3"| <Pa`>-sk
|-
! 2S
| rowspan="2"|<Pr`>-r
| <Pa`>-t
| <Pr>-
| <Pr>-sk
|-
! 3S
| <Pa`>-
|-
! 1P
| <Pr>{u}-(u)m
| <Pr>{u}-(u)msk
| <Pa>{u}-(u)m
| <Pa>{u}-(u)msk
| <Pr>{u}-(u)m
| <Pr>{u}-(u)msk
|-
! 2P
| <Pr>-({j}i)ð
| <Pr>-({j}i)sk
| <Pa>{u}-(u)ð
| <Pa>{u}-(u)sk
| <Pr>-({j}i)ð
| <Pr>-({j}i)sk
|-
! 3P
| <Pr>-(ă)
| <Pr>-(ă)sk
| <Pa>{u}-u
| <Pa>{u}-usk
|-
|}
'''Notes:''' Vowels in brackets are dropped after stems ending in vowels.
====Weak verbs====
====Preterite-present verbs====


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
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