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===Orthography===
===Orthography===
{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*e}}
!{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|e, ʔe, i
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*a}}
!({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
!rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}}
!{{PIE|*h₃e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*o}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}}
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}}
|∅
|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|ḫ
|{{PIE|a}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|∅
|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}}
!{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|e (a?)}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|a, ∅
|{{PIE|e (o)}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|∅}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|ḫa
|{{PIE|a}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
|{{PIE|a, ha}}
|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ē}}
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|{{PIE|ė}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}}
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ā}}
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[oː]}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a/o}}?
|{{PIE|a, ah}}
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ō}}
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}}
|{{PIE|uo}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|a, ā}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*i}}
!{{PIE|*i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ь}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}}
!{{PIE|*ih₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₂}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. {{lang|grc|ζωός}}; {{PIE|*duh₂ro-}} > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. {{lang|grc|δηρός}})</ref>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|yā}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₃}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ei}}
!{{PIE|*ei}}, {{PIE|*h₁ei}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ē}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ōi}},<br/>{{PIE|āi > aē}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>
|{{PIE|ei}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress>Under stress.</ref>
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ei}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*oi}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}, {{PIE|*h₃ei}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ě}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|rowspan=2|ē, ai
|{{PIE|oi}}
|{{PIE|ū}}
|{{PIE|oi}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ai}}
!({{PIE|*ai}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂ei}}
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|ae}}
|{{PIE|ai}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}} > {{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}}; {{PIE|ā(i)}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|ē
|{{PIE|ēi}}
|{{PIE|ī}}?
|
|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ōi}}
!{{PIE|*ōi (*oei)}}
|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ui}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|ōi}}
|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*āi}}
!{{PIE|*eh₂ei}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|
|
|
|ai
|{{PIE|āi > ēi}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|ae}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*u}}
!{{PIE|*u}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ъ}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|y}}<ref group=V name=i>Before ''i'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=7|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=wa>Before ''wa''.</ref>
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|aú}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh>Before a non-high vowel in the next syllable ([[Germanic a-mutation|''a''-mutation]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|y}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ū}}
!{{PIE|*uh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|i}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="4"|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ȳ}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*uh₂}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|wā}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*uh₃}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*eu}}
!{{PIE|*eu}}, {{PIE|*h₁eu}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|au}} > {{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ə̄u}}; {{PIE|ao}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>
|{{PIE|ju}}
|{{PIE|iau}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|oy}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|eu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ou}}
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|īe}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ou}}
!{{PIE|*ou}},{{PIE|*h₃eu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|au}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, au}}
|{{PIE|ou}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|áu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*au}}
!({{PIE|*au}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂eu}}
|{{PIE|aw}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}} > {{PIE|au}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|iau}}
|
|{{PIE|e}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|ū}}?
|
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|a}}
|
|au
|{{PIE|ō}}
|
|
|{{PIE|áu}}
|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|{{PIE|im̃}}; {{PIE|um̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel>In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.</ref>
|{{PIE|am}}
|rowspan=10|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|äm}}
|a, un
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|em, am}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ym}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*m̥̅}}
!{{PIE|*mh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìm}}; {{PIE|ùm}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ama}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|mā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|mē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|mā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*mh₂}}
|{{PIE|mā > mē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*mh₃}}
|{{PIE|mō}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|ьm/ъm}}
|{{PIE|im}}; {{PIE|um}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|am}}
|
|
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|am}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*n̥}}
!{{PIE|*n̥}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|{{PIE|iñ}}; {{PIE|uñ}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|än}}
|an
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|{{PIE|en, an}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yn}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*n̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*nh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìn}}; {{PIE|ùn}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ana}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|nā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|nē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|nā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*nh₂}}
|{{PIE|nā > nē}} <ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*nh₃}}
|{{PIE|nō}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|ьn/ъn}}
|{{PIE|iñ}}; {{PIE|uñ}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|an}}
|
|
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*l̥}}
!{{PIE|*l̥}}
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|lь/lъ}}
|{{PIE|il̃}}; {{PIE|ul̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|il, li; ul, lu}}
|{{PIE|äl}}
|al
|{{PIE|la}}
|{{PIE|ol}}
|{{PIE|li}};<ref group=V name=VPM>Before a stop or ''m''.</ref> {{PIE|al}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul; ol}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yl}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*l̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*lh₁}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial>In the neighbourhood of labials.</ref>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìl}}; {{PIE|ùl}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ala}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|al}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|lā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|lē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|lā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*lh₂}}
|{{PIE|lā > lē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*lh₃}}
|{{PIE|lō}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ьl/ъl}}
|{{PIE|il}}; {{PIE|ul}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al, la}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|el}}
|{{PIE|al}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*r̥}}
!{{PIE|*r̥}}
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|rь/rъ}}
|{{PIE|ir̃}}; {{PIE|ur̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ir, ri; ur, ru}}
|{{PIE|är}}
|ar, ur
|{{PIE|ra}}
|{{PIE|or}}
|{{PIE|ri}};<ref group=V name=VPM/> {{PIE|ar}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|aúr}} {{IPA|[ɔr]}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ur; or}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yr}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*r̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*rh₁}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìr}}; {{PIE|ùr}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ara}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ra}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|rā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|rē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|rā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*rh₂}}
|{{PIE|rā > rē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*rh₃}}
|{{PIE|rō}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ьr/ъr}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|- align=center
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial/> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal/> !! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut/>
|- align=center
!colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|}
===Consonants===
===Consonants===


Veno
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