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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | → PoA <br/> ↓ Manner !! rowspan=2 | Labials<br/><small> | ! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | → PoA <br/> ↓ Manner !! rowspan=2 | Labials<br/><small>hærṣoke</small> !! colspan=2 | Dentals<br/><small>aṣṭrūke</small> !! rowspan=2 | Retroflexes<br/><small>āḍhyāsūke</small> !! rowspan=2 | Palatals<br/><small>dehāṃlūdvyūke</small> !! rowspan=2 | Velars<br/><small>bhyodilūdvyūke</small> !! rowspan=2 | Laryngeals<br/><small>diṇḍhūke</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Plain<br/>'' | ! <small>Plain<br/>''pūdre''</small> !! <small>Palatalized<br/>''pindehāṃlūdvyūke''</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=2 | Nasals | ! colspan=2 | Nasals | ||
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* /n/ [ŋ] is written as <l> before <k g kh gh n>. Note that in many local varieties <lk lkh lg lgh> are actually [ɴq ɴqʰ ɴɢ ɴɢʱ], with the stop assimilating to <l> and not vice-versa, and thus analyzed as /ɴ̆k ɴ̆kʰ ɴ̆g ɴ̆gʱ/. | * /n/ [ŋ] is written as <l> before <k g kh gh n>. Note that in many local varieties <lk lkh lg lgh> are actually [ɴq ɴqʰ ɴɢ ɴɢʱ], with the stop assimilating to <l> and not vice-versa, and thus analyzed as /ɴ̆k ɴ̆kʰ ɴ̆g ɴ̆gʱ/. | ||
Letter names are formed | Letter names are formed with simple rules: | ||
* | * All consonants apart from '''l''', '''r''', and aspirated stops form them with CaCas, e.g. '''s''' is ''sasas'', '''m''' is ''mamas'', '''b''' is ''babas'' and so on. '''ɂ''' is written ''aɂas''. | ||
* | * Aspirated stops form them as CʰeCas, e.g. '''bh''' is ''bhebas'', '''ph''' is ''phepas'', and so on. | ||
* | * '''l''' is ''loulas'' and '''r''' is ''rairas''. '''ṃ''' is, uniquely, ''nālkāvi'' and the palatalizing sign is called ''hærūñjīma''. | ||
* Short | * Short vowels are VtV*s, where the second V is ''a'' for '''æ''' and '''å''' (''ætas'', ''åtas''), ''i'' for '''e''' (''etis''), and ''u'' for '''o''' (''otus''). | ||
* Long vowels are vowel + | * Long vowels are vowel + ''-nis'' if unrounded (''īnis'', ''ėnis'', ''ānis''), but '''ū''', being rounded, is ''ūmus'' if rounded (ūm). Oral diphthongs all have diphthong + ''-myas'' (''aimyas'', ''eimyas''…). | ||
* Breathy-voiced vowels are vowel + /ɦ/ + vowel ( | * Breathy-voiced vowels are vowel + /ɦ/ + vowel + s (''įis'', ''ąas'', ''ųus'', but ''ęas''). Breathy-voiced diphthongs are diphthong + /ɕ/ + ''as'' (''ąišas'', ''ęišas'', ''ąušas''). | ||
===o and å=== | ===o and å=== | ||
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''→ Main article: [[Chlouvānem/Morphology|Chlouvānem morphology]]'' | ''→ Main article: [[Chlouvānem/Morphology|Chlouvānem morphology]]'' | ||
Chlouvānem morphology (''maivāndarāmita'') is complex and synthetic, with a large number of inflections. | Chlouvānem morphology (''maivāndarāmita'') is complex and synthetic, with a large number of inflections. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns, numerals, and particles. | ||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
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====Use of the topic==== | ====Use of the topic==== | ||
The '''topic''' is explicitely marked with ''mæn'' if it does not coincide with the subject and does not have any syntactical role in the sentence. Some common structures where explicit topics are always used rank among the most basic sentences: | The '''topic''' is explicitely marked with ''mæn'' if it does not coincide with the subject and does not have any syntactical role in the sentence. Some common structures where explicit topics are always used rank among the most basic sentences: | ||
* ''lili mæn māmimojendeh fliven'' "I am 21 (19<sub>12</sub>, Chlouvānem age)/20 years old (English age)"<ref>Chlouvānem age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in its first year, and a 20-years-old is in its twenty-first year.</ref>, glossed: <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. nineteenth<sub>12</sub>.<small> | * ''lili mæn māmimojendeh fliven'' "I am 21 (19<sub>12</sub>, Chlouvānem age)/20 years old (English age)"<ref>Chlouvānem age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in its first year, and a 20-years-old is in its twenty-first year.</ref>, glossed: <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. nineteenth<sub>12</sub>.<small>DIR.SG</small>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. | ||
* ''lili mæn ñæltion unde'' "I have two sisters", glossed <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. sister-<small>DIR.DUAL</small>. be-<small>IND.PRES.3D.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. — the verb "to have" is always translated by this construction. | * ''lili mæn ñæltion unde'' "I have two sisters", glossed <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. sister-<small>DIR.DUAL</small>. be-<small>IND.PRES.3D.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. — the verb "to have" is always translated by this construction. | ||
* ''lili mæn kite domani tītya [ulīran]'' "in my house there are eight rooms", glossed <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. house-<small>LOC.SG</small>. room-<small>.GEN.SG</small>. eight. [be-<small>IND.PRES.3P.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.] | * ''lili mæn kite domani tītya [ulīran]'' "in my house there are eight rooms", glossed <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. house-<small>LOC.SG</small>. room-<small>.GEN.SG</small>. eight. [be-<small>IND.PRES.3P.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>.] | ||
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Two different topics are also commonly used in contrasts: | Two different topics are also commonly used in contrasts: | ||
* ''rūdakis mæn tadadrā lili mæn yąlė'' "[my] husband has cooked, but I eat" - husband.<small>DIR.SG</small>.<small>TOPIC</small>. prepare<small>.IND.PERF.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. eat-<small>IND.PRES.1S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <br/>Note how neither "husband" nor "I" agree with the verbs, and note how different formulations change meanings: | * ''rūdakis mæn tadadrā lili mæn yąlė'' "[my] husband has cooked, but I eat" - husband.<small>DIR.SG</small>.<small>TOPIC</small>. prepare<small>.IND.PERF.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. eat-<small>IND.PRES.1S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <br/>Note how neither "husband" nor "I" agree with the verbs, and note how different formulations change meanings: | ||
** ''rūdakis mæn | ** ''rūdakis mæn tęi tadadrā lili mæn yąlė'' - main interpretation: "as for the husband, he [=someone else, could be the husband's husband] has cooked for him, but it is me who eats" // other possible interpretation: "as for the husband, he [=as before] has cooked him, but it is me who eats / and I eat him [=either of them]". | ||
** ''rūdakis mæn tadadrā sama lili yąlute'' "[my] husband has cooked, and I eat" - unlike in the sentence where "lili" is the topic, here it's explicit that the husband cooked for the speaker. The sentence ''lili mæn rūdakei tadadrā sama yąlute'' may be interpreted with the same meaning, but the topics are different: with the previous one, the conversation is supposed to continue about the husband; in the second one, it's all about the speaker. Note that the agent-trigger voice in the second verb is of vital importance: the sentence ''lili mæn rūdakei tadadrā sama yąlu'' means "it is me my husband has cooked, and [now] he eats me". | ** ''rūdakis mæn tadadrā sama lili yąlute'' "[my] husband has cooked, and I eat" - unlike in the sentence where "lili" is the topic, here it's explicit that the husband cooked for the speaker. The sentence ''lili mæn rūdakei tadadrā sama yąlute'' may be interpreted with the same meaning, but the topics are different: with the previous one, the conversation is supposed to continue about the husband; in the second one, it's all about the speaker. Note that the agent-trigger voice in the second verb is of vital importance: the sentence ''lili mæn rūdakei tadadrā sama yąlu'' means "it is me my husband has cooked, and [now] he eats me". | ||
*** Another possible interpretation of ''lili mæn rūdakei tadadrā sama yąlute'' is "[my] husband has cooked for me, and now I eat", which is the same as ''lili rūdakei takædadrā sama yąlute'', but the latter is a plain neutral statement. | *** Another possible interpretation of ''lili mæn rūdakei tadadrā sama yąlute'' is "[my] husband has cooked for me, and now I eat", which is the same as ''lili rūdakei takædadrā sama yąlute'', but the latter is a plain neutral statement. | ||
Topics also mark context: as a good example, the Chlouvānem translation of Schleicher's fable begins as: ''yanekai mæn bhadvęs udvī | Topics also mark context: as a good example, the Chlouvānem translation of Schleicher's fable begins as: ''yanekai mæn bhadvęs udvī leila voltām mišekte, ūtarnire cūllu khuliu, spragnyire ūtrau dumbhivu no, lilu kimęe dumbhivu no''. Here "horses" is the topic and has no syntactical role in the sentence, as the subject is the agent ''voltām'' (sheep) and the three objects are the patients ''khulias'' (the pulling one) and two different ''dumbhivas'' (the carrying one). The topic makes it clear that these latter are nouns referring to horses - it would still be grammatical to use [...] ''khuliu yaneku, spragnyire ūtrau dumbhivu yaneku no, lilu kimęe dumbhivu yaneku no'', but the sentence would sound strange to Chlouvānem ears - compare the possible English translation "[...] a sheep saw one horse that was pulling a heavy wagon, one horse that was carrying a big load, and one horse that was carrying a man quickly". | ||
As such, topics usually avoid repetition and anaphora, acting much like folders where different paper sheets (= the sentences) are contained, e.g. ''nāmñė mæn švai chlouvānumi maichleyutei, jariāmaile lilah, soramiya mušigėrisilīm tora bu sama ñikumi viṣam haloe līlas væl. nenėhu līlasuṃghāṇa ga camimarti haloe gṇyāvire'' - "talking about nāmñai<ref>A kind of tropical seal, iconic and sacred in Chlouvānem culture.</ref>, [they're] animals of the Southern [part of the] Chlouvānem lands, [they] live in seawater but sometimes [they can be found] in tidal lakes too, and another name for [their] cubs is "līlas". From this [name] comes the name of the capital, Līlasuṃghāṇa." | As such, topics usually avoid repetition and anaphora, acting much like folders where different paper sheets (= the sentences) are contained, e.g. ''nāmñė mæn švai chlouvānumi maichleyutei, jariāmaile lilah, soramiya mušigėrisilīm tora bu sama ñikumi viṣam haloe līlas væl. nenėhu līlasuṃghāṇa ga camimarti haloe gṇyāvire'' - "talking about nāmñai<ref>A kind of tropical seal, iconic and sacred in Chlouvānem culture.</ref>, [they're] animals of the Southern [part of the] Chlouvānem lands, [they] live in seawater but sometimes [they can be found] in tidal lakes too, and another name for [their] cubs is "līlas". From this [name] comes the name of the capital, Līlasuṃghāṇa." | ||
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The three stative cases of Chlouvānem (translative, exessive, essive) express nominal tense in certain situations, most notably in copulative sentence, where the translative case conveys a future meaning and the exessive a past one: | The three stative cases of Chlouvānem (translative, exessive, essive) express nominal tense in certain situations, most notably in copulative sentence, where the translative case conveys a future meaning and the exessive a past one: | ||
* ''lili rahėllilan'' — I am a will-be-doctor = I am studying in order to become a doctor | * ''lili rahėllilan'' — I am a will-be-doctor = I am studying in order to become a doctor | ||
* ''liliā kaleya mæn gu ninejñairau ša nanū | * ''liliā kaleya mæn gu ninejñairau ša nanū aveṣyotārire lallāmahan camimurkadhānan gīti'' — as for my best friend<ref>''kaleya'' actually is a "spiritual friend", which has a religiously charged meaning</ref>, I could not believe it, that she was the Great Inquisitor-elect <small>(note the use of the highly respectful (not translated) formula "Her Most Excellent Highness, the Great Inquisitor")</small>. | ||
* ''tami tamiāt šulañšenat'' — he is her former husband. | * ''tami tamiāt šulañšenat'' — he is her former husband. | ||
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* ''lūlunimartyęs nunūt dældāt tarliru'' — being from Lūlunimarta, I understand that language. Note that ''nunūt dældāt'' here is exessive case but only because it's an argument of the verb ''tṛlake'', without implying tense. | * ''lūlunimartyęs nunūt dældāt tarliru'' — being from Lūlunimarta, I understand that language. Note that ''nunūt dældāt'' here is exessive case but only because it's an argument of the verb ''tṛlake'', without implying tense. | ||
* ''bunān samin pa maišildente'' — as he's going to be a father <small>(lit. "as a will-be-father")</small>, he's learning about children. | * ''bunān samin pa maišildente'' — as he's going to be a father <small>(lit. "as a will-be-father")</small>, he's learning about children. | ||
Note that | Note that, tense is relative to the main verb. | ||
====Miscellaneous uses of cases==== | ====Miscellaneous uses of cases==== | ||
'''Purpose''' may be expressed not only with a subjunctive verb, but also with either a translative or a dative noun.<br/>
Translative case is used generally with a purpose directly affecting the trigger: | '''Purpose''' may be expressed not only with a subjunctive verb, but also with either a translative or a dative noun.<br/>
Translative case is used generally with a purpose directly affecting the trigger: | ||
: '''''murkadhānan''' kaminairīveyu.'' "I am studying [in order to become] an Inquisitor." | : '''''murkadhānan''' kaminairīveyu.'' "I am studying [in order to become] an Inquisitor." | ||
: ''tąsь | : ''tąsь lā '''nadaidanan''' peithegde.'' "(s)he is going out with him/her to get to know him/her." | ||
Dative case is used generally when the purpose is something else, or is the result of a subsequent (unstated) action: | Dative case is used generally when the purpose is something else, or is the result of a subsequent (unstated) action: | ||
: ''maivnaviṣye '''maivauti''' khloute.'' "I am searching in the dictionary [in order to find] the words." | : ''maivnaviṣye '''maivauti''' khloute.'' "I am searching in the dictionary [in order to find] the words." | ||
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: ''dāneh '''dulmaidanų''' nanū lalla.'' "Dāneh is taller than Dulmaidana." | : ''dāneh '''dulmaidanų''' nanū lalla.'' "Dāneh is taller than Dulmaidana." | ||
: ''faliā ñæltah '''tąu''' chloucæm pūnė.'' "Your sister works better than him/her." | : ''faliā ñæltah '''tąu''' chloucæm pūnė.'' "Your sister works better than him/her." | ||
: ''nenė naviṣya '''yaivų''' nanū | : ''nenė naviṣya '''yaivų''' nanū ñæñuchlire.'' "This book is the most beautiful." (literally "more beautiful than all") | ||
It is also used as reason when it's an abstract noun: | It is also used as reason when it's an abstract noun: | ||
: ''tami '''kairų''' | : ''tami '''kairų''' hånyadaikirek.'' "(s)he was happy for love." | ||
: '''''maidaudių''' ḍūkirek.'' "(s)he died because of his/her ambition." | : '''''maidaudių''' ḍūkirek.'' "(s)he died because of his/her ambition." | ||
'''Possession''' may be also expressed with the genitive case (topic marking is the most common way, but in some cases this may be needed syntactically; there is a verb ''cārake'' translating as "to have, possess", but it's fairly literary and high-styled). "To be" may or may not be present: | '''Possession''' may be also expressed with the genitive case (topic marking is the most common way, but in some cases this may be needed syntactically; there is a verb ''cārake'' translating as "to have, possess", but it's fairly literary and high-styled). "To be" may or may not be present: | ||
: '''''kvyāti''' | : '''''kvyāti''' giṣṭarire lalāruṇa (væl)'' "The hero has a young lalāruṇa." (literally "of the hero is the young lalāruṇa (the lalāruṇa that is young)") | ||
: '''''pogi''' gu cūllanagdha'' "My village does not have a velodrome." (literally "of my village is no velodrome") | : '''''pogi''' gu cūllanagdha'' "My village does not have a velodrome." (literally "of my village is no velodrome") | ||
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In an appropriate context, however, the same verb form can carry an imperfective meaning: | In an appropriate context, however, the same verb form can carry an imperfective meaning: | ||
: ''tammikeika flære lį yųlopan væse, nanā tammi tadāmek.'' | : ''tammikeika flære lį yųlopan væse, nanā tammi tadāmek.'' | ||
: train_station.<small>DIR.SG</small>. yesterday. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. eat-<small>IND.PAST.3S.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>. while. , that.<small>DIR | : train_station.<small>DIR.SG</small>. yesterday. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. eat-<small>IND.PAST.3S.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>. while. , that.<small>DIR</small>. train.<small>DIR.SG</small>. arrive-<small>IND.PAST.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small> | ||
: Yesterday I ate at the station. | : Yesterday I ate at the station. | ||
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Generally this imperfective meaning is assumed by other words in the sentence, usually ''væse'' (while), but commonly also ''mbu'' (but) with a related sentence understood to be imperfective. Out of context, imperfective past is usually expressed with an analytic construction: | Generally this imperfective meaning is assumed by other words in the sentence, usually ''væse'' (while), but commonly also ''mbu'' (but) with a related sentence understood to be imperfective. Out of context, imperfective past is usually expressed with an analytic construction: | ||
: ''tammikeika flære lį | : ''tammikeika flære lį yųlītipan lā moe.'' | ||
: train_station.<small>DIR.SG</small>. yesterday. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. eat-<small> | : train_station.<small>DIR.SG</small>. yesterday. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. eat-<small>SUBJ.IMPF.3S.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>. with. be.<small>IND.PAST.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. | ||
: Yesterday I was eating at the station. | : Yesterday I was eating at the station. | ||
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The Chlouvānem perfect is however also used where English would use ''past perfect'' or ''future perfect'', as the “impact on the present” is understood to be on the time the main action in the sentence takes place, thus something that happened earlier is considered to have an impact on it: | The Chlouvānem perfect is however also used where English would use ''past perfect'' or ''future perfect'', as the “impact on the present” is understood to be on the time the main action in the sentence takes place, thus something that happened earlier is considered to have an impact on it: | ||
: ''tammikeika flære lį uyųlapan, utiya nanā tammi tadāmek''. | : ''tammikeika flære lį uyųlapan, utiya nanā tammi tadāmek''. | ||
: train_station.<small>DIR.SG</small>. yesterday. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. eat-<small>IND.PERF.3S.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>. , then. that.<small>DIR | : train_station.<small>DIR.SG</small>. yesterday. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. eat-<small>IND.PERF.3S.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>. , then. that.<small>DIR</small>. train.<small>DIR.SG</small>. arrive-<small>IND.PAST.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. | ||
: I had [already] eaten at the station yesterday when the train arrived. | : I had [already] eaten at the station yesterday when the train arrived. | ||
: ''tammikeika lį uyųlapan, utiya nanā tammi tafluniṣya.'' | : ''tammikeika lį uyųlapan, utiya nanā tammi tafluniṣya.'' | ||
: train_station.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. eat-<small>IND.PERF.3S.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>. , then. that.<small>DIR | : train_station.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>1SG.ERG</small>. eat-<small>IND.PERF.3S.EXTERIOR-LOC</small>. , then. that.<small>DIR</small>. train.<small>DIR.SG</small>. arrive-<small>IND.FUT.3S.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. | ||
: I will have [already] eaten at the station when the train arrives. | : I will have [already] eaten at the station when the train arrives. | ||
Note that in the latter example, English uses future perfect and present simple respectively, while Chlouvānem uses perfect and future; the future in the second clause is necessary to give the future perfect meaning to the first one.<br/> | Note that in the latter example, English uses future perfect and present simple respectively, while Chlouvānem uses perfect and future; the future in the second clause is necessary to give the future perfect meaning to the first one.<br/> | ||
Still, note that out of context both pluperfect and future perfect may be expressed analytically, by using the | Still, note that out of context both pluperfect and future perfect may be expressed analytically, by using the perfective subjunctive plus ''lā'' (with) and the past or future tense of ''gyake'' (to be). | ||
A notable exception to this use is with so-called “chained actions”, when the second one is a direct consequence of the first and the first one is usually still ongoing; the second one is therefore only a momentane happening inside the broader context of the first, and thus the choice between present and past is once again dependent on the impact on the present. Note that in such cases the two verbs are usually connected with ''no'' instead of ''sama''. Compare: | A notable exception to this use is with so-called “chained actions”, when the second one is a direct consequence of the first and the first one is usually still ongoing; the second one is therefore only a momentane happening inside the broader context of the first, and thus the choice between present and past is once again dependent on the impact on the present. Note that in such cases the two verbs are usually connected with ''no'' instead of ''sama''. Compare: | ||
: '' | : ''dašajildek līlta vīheṣṭvirek no'' - “it rained, and the path collapsed”. Past tense: the path has since been repaired and it is walkable. | ||
: ''dašejilda līlta viṣeheṣṭvirā no'' - “it has rained, and the path has collapsed”. Perfect “tense”: the path is not walkable due to it having collapsed. | : ''dašejilda līlta viṣeheṣṭvirā no'' - “it has rained, and the path has collapsed”. Perfect “tense”: the path is not walkable due to it having collapsed. | ||
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: ''šuteitieldā, yaivei tamišīti.'' "it has been put there for everybody to look at it." | : ''šuteitieldā, yaivei tamišīti.'' "it has been put there for everybody to look at it." | ||
: ''luvāmom dāmek yambrānu lgutītite.'' "(s)he went to the market to buy pears." | : ''luvāmom dāmek yambrānu lgutītite.'' "(s)he went to the market to buy pears." | ||
Some verbs, such as '' | Some verbs, such as ''nīdhyuɂake'' (to call for), usually require the subjunctive: | ||
: '' | : ''nītedhyuɂek karthāgo bīdrīti.'' "(s)he called for Carthage to be destroyed." | ||
The verbs for "to study" (''pāṭṭaruke'', ''pāṭṭarudṛke'', ''kaminairīveke'') and "to learn" (interior forms of ''mišake''; ''nairīveke'') only need a supine-meaning subjunctive when they mean "in order to know something, in order to be able to". With the meaning "in order to become something", a noun in translative case is used: | The verbs for "to study" (''pāṭṭaruke'', ''pāṭṭarudṛke'', ''kaminairīveke'') and "to learn" (interior forms of ''mišake''; ''nairīveke'') only need a supine-meaning subjunctive when they mean "in order to know something, in order to be able to". With the meaning "in order to become something", a noun in translative case is used: | ||
: ''fildenī āndṛke munatiam ejulā kaminairīveyu.'' "I study here in order to be able to create games." | : ''fildenī āndṛke munatiam ejulā kaminairīveyu.'' "I study here in order to be able to create games." | ||
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Note that some locations are often expressed with the last one anyway, especially if they're idiomatic — a notable example being ''yųljavyī ūtime/ūmirte'' "standing/sitting in the kitchen", as ''yųljavyāh'' originally meant "fire for [cooking] food" and while it later was extended to "kitchen" the location is still expressed as such ("in the kitchen" = "near the fire"). | Note that some locations are often expressed with the last one anyway, especially if they're idiomatic — a notable example being ''yųljavyī ūtime/ūmirte'' "standing/sitting in the kitchen", as ''yųljavyāh'' originally meant "fire for [cooking] food" and while it later was extended to "kitchen" the location is still expressed as such ("in the kitchen" = "near the fire"). | ||
====Motion verbs - | ====Motion verbs - Duldaradhūve==== | ||
Along with positional verbs, ''motion verbs'' (sg. ''duldaradhūs'', pl. '' | Along with positional verbs, ''motion verbs'' (sg. ''duldaradhūs'', pl. ''duldaradhūve'') are another complex but essential part of Chlouvānem grammar. Motion verbs can be ''monodirectional'' (''tūtugirdaradhūs'', ''-ūve'') or ''multidirectional'' (''tailьgirdaradhūs'', ''-ūve''), and all verbs come in pairs, each member of a pair being used in different contexts.<br/> | ||
Historically, most of the multidirectional verbs (except the "suppletive" ''peithake'', ''pūrṣake'', and ''dulde'') have been derived as iterative forms of the original Proto-Lahob verbs (continued by the monodirectionals), as in PLB *mudʱ- → ''mudh''- vs. *máw-re-dʱ- → ''mordh''-. | Historically, most of the multidirectional verbs (except the "suppletive" ''peithake'', ''pūrṣake'', and ''dulde'') have been derived as iterative forms of the original Proto-Lahob verbs (continued by the monodirectionals), as in PLB *mudʱ- → ''mudh''- vs. *máw-re-dʱ- → ''mordh''-. | ||
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* Gnomic or potential meanings: | * Gnomic or potential meanings: | ||
:: ''gūṇai mordhīran'' - birds [can] fly. | :: ''gūṇai mordhīran'' - birds [can] fly. | ||
:: '' | :: ''spragnyirena lalāruṇai pāmvyų lilų nanū dårbhīrante'' - large lalāruṇai can carry more than three people. | ||
* (in the past or perfect) completed movements: movement to a place and then returning back. | * (in the past or perfect) completed movements: movement to a place and then returning back. | ||
:: ''liliā buneya galiākinom mordhek'' - my older sister went to Galiākina by plane [and came back]. | :: ''liliā buneya galiākinom mordhek'' - my older sister went to Galiākina by plane [and came back]. | ||
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Except for this last meaning, multidirectional verbs are never used in the perfect.<br/> | Except for this last meaning, multidirectional verbs are never used in the perfect.<br/> | ||
In auxiliary constructions, monodirectional verbs are never used as habituals (infinitive + ''ñeaʔake''), while multidirectional ones are never used as progressives ( | In auxiliary constructions, monodirectional verbs are never used as habituals (infinitive + ''ñeaʔake''), while multidirectional ones are never used as progressives (impf.subj. + ''lā'' + ''gyake''): | ||
: ''liliā buneya galiākinom mordhakeñeaʔek'' - my older sister regularly went to Galiākina by plane. | : ''liliā buneya galiākinom mordhakeñeaʔek'' - my older sister regularly went to Galiākina by plane. | ||
: ''liliā buneya galiākinom | : ''liliā buneya galiākinom mugdhīti lā moe'' - my older sister was flying to Galiākina. | ||
====Origin prefixes==== | ====Origin prefixes==== | ||
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|} | |} | ||
Note that the sense of "to wear" is most usually translated with patient-trigger voice - e.g. '' | Note that the sense of "to wear" is most usually translated with patient-trigger voice - e.g. ''pāṇḍire jūnekah tę kamikyāyė'' "(s)he wears white robes" - while "to put on" with agent-trigger voice ''pāṇḍire jūneku kamitekyāyė'' "(s)he puts/is putting on white robes". | ||
A few more specific verbs exist, like for example the pair ''kamilāṇṭake''/''kįlalāṇṭake'', used for putting on/taking off a ''lāṇṭepenai'' (colloquially just ''penai''), a kind of net made of Calemerian juta (''lāriṭa'') usually worn by adolescent girls (traditionally it was worn by unmarried women) with "cotton" hair ('' | A few more specific verbs exist, like for example the pair ''kamilāṇṭake''/''kįlalāṇṭake'', used for putting on/taking off a ''lāṇṭepenai'' (colloquially just ''penai''), a kind of net made of Calemerian juta (''lāriṭa'') usually worn by adolescent girls (traditionally it was worn by unmarried women) with "cotton" hair (''bhadvausye''<ref>Plural only, shaped on ''pārye'' (hair).</ref>, or how Chlouvānem people call "Afro-textured hair"). | ||
=== | ===Relative clauses=== | ||
Chlouvānem | Chlouvānem relative clauses are nonreduced and work exactly the same way as adjectival verbs do: both clauses are independent, with optionally an ''i'' particle (which combines with the preceding verb) for disambiguation. Time, place, and similar things are expressed with a distal correlative (see the [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Correlatives|table of correlatives]]).<br/> | ||
The structure is thus as follows: | |||
: ''sęi nanā jāyim mešė liliā buneya.'' | |||
: <small>2S.ERG</small>. that.<small>DIR</small>. girl.<small>DIR.SG</small>. see-<small>IND.PRES.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. <small>1S.GEN.</small> older_sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. | |||
: That girl you see is my older sister. | |||
The ''i'' particle may be added after ''mešė'', contracting to ''mešei''. | |||
Other examples: | |||
: ''mešute gu tarliru ša''. | |||
: see-<small>IND.PRES.1S.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. <small>NEG</small>- know-<small>IND.PRES.1S.INTERIOR</small>. -<small>NEG</small>. | |||
: I don’t know/understand what I see. | |||
: '' | : ''liliā ñæltah līlekhaitom tesmudhiṣya ātiya lęi lairkeikom khlavasiṣya''. | ||
: <small>1S.GEN</small>. sister.<small>DIR.SG</small>. Līlekhaitė-<small>DAT</small>. depart_with_plane-<small>IND.FUT.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. then. <small>1S.ERG</small>. airport-<small>DAT.SG</small>. go_with.<small>IND.FUT.3S.EXTERIOR.PATIENT</small>. | |||
: | : When my sister takes the plane to Līlekhaitė, I will go with her to the airport. | ||
: ''tū kulekte ātmena gu tarliru ša''. | |||
: <small>3S.ACC</small>. say-<small>IND.PAST.3S.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>. that_reason. <small>NEG</small>- know-<small>IND.PRES.1S.INTERIOR</small>. -<small>NEG</small>. | |||
: I don’t know why (s)he said it. | |||
: | |||
The same strategy is used for attributes — ''kamilire fluta'' "blue bag" or "bag that is blue", including participial-like structures such as the following ones: | |||
: ''lilei '''priemęlia''' fluta'' - the bag which has been given back by the person | |||
: '' | : ''flutu '''pritėmęlia''' lila'' - the person who has given back the bag | ||
: | : ''flutu dhurvāneiti '''prikevemęlia''' lila'' - the person for whose benefit the bag has been given back to the police | ||
: | : ''flutu ītulom '''prituremęlia''' lila'' - the person for whose misfortune the bag has been given back to the thief | ||
: ''håmarṣūvī '''nīpanotė''' fluta'' - the bag in which the keys lie | |||
: ''flutu '''priūsyemęlia''' lila'' - the person who has been given back the bag | |||
: ''flutua demie maihei '''priūsyemęlia''' lila'' - the person who has been given back the bag by his/her own daughter | |||
: ''ītulu lāṇṭaṃrye lilei '''utuga''' fluta'' - the bag with which the thief has been hit on the head by the person | |||
Such constructions can also be used where English uses gerundive constructions: | |||
: '' | : ''flutu demie maihei '''priūsyemęlia''' lila hånyadaikirek.'' - the person, having been given back the bag by his/her own daughter, was happy. | ||
: ''ālīce '''guṃsek''' liliā pamih uyūṭarau rileyekte.'' - my finger, having been cut that way, needed an operation. | |||
: ''panaʔetatimu læmilāṇe arūppumei '''ilakatū''' læmьlila menire pifreṣṭasyiṣya.'' - the driver, being disadvantaged as (his/her) championship rival has taken pole position, will have to take some risks tomorrow. | |||
===Conditional sentences=== | ===Conditional sentences=== | ||
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Real sentences are those where the sentence expresses an implication that is always true. These sentences are generally in the indicative mood; note that in real, just like in hypothetical, sentences, ''mārim'' (then) is optionally used in order to introduce the second clause: | Real sentences are those where the sentence expresses an implication that is always true. These sentences are generally in the indicative mood; note that in real, just like in hypothetical, sentences, ''mārim'' (then) is optionally used in order to introduce the second clause: | ||
: ''pū nāmvite (mārim) tåh ryukaši.'' "if you hit him/her/it, you hurt him/her/it." | : ''pū nāmvite (mārim) tåh ryukaši.'' "if you hit him/her/it, you hurt him/her/it." | ||
: ''pū yañšu | : ''pū yañšu udhyuɂeste tafluniṣya.'' "if you have called her [honorific], she will come." | ||
Hypothetical sentences are those where the result may be or might have been true if the condition gets/would have been fulfilled. There are two main possibilities:
| Hypothetical sentences are those where the result may be or might have been true if the condition gets/would have been fulfilled. There are two main possibilities:
| ||
* Present conditions, where the condition either might be fulfilled or just can't at all. They are similar in structure to real sentences with present tense conditions, but, if the condition is fulfillable, they differ in the fact that the condition, is not likely to happen, or is used as a warning. The condition (''pū-clause'') is always in the imperfective subjunctive; the second clause may be in the indicative (carrying an implicate result) or in the subjunctive (implying a wish): | * Present conditions, where the condition either might be fulfilled or just can't at all. They are similar in structure to real sentences with present tense conditions, but, if the condition is fulfillable, they differ in the fact that the condition, is not likely to happen, or is used as a warning. The condition (''pū-clause'') is always in the imperfective subjunctive; the second clause may be in the indicative (carrying an implicate result) or in the subjunctive (implying a wish): | ||
: ''lili mæn pū nanū nūlastān gīti | : ''lili mæn pū nanū nūlastān gīti samvarire kitu lgutevitaṃte.'' "if I had more of money, I'd buy (perf. aspect) a bigger house." | ||
: ''lili mæn pū nanū nūlastān gīti chloucæm lilatiam.'' "if I had more money, I'd live (impf. aspect) better." | : ''lili mæn pū nanū nūlastān gīti chloucæm lilatiam.'' "if I had more money, I'd live (impf. aspect) better." | ||
: ''pū nanū pāṭṭarudrīderi nanū tṛliriṣyari/tṛlirdia.'' "if you two study more, you two would know/understand more." Note that in such a sentence there's no difference between using a future (e.g. ''tṛliriṣyari'' here) or a present indicative (''tṛlirdia'' here).
| : ''pū nanū pāṭṭarudrīderi nanū tṛliriṣyari/tṛlirdia.'' "if you two study more, you two would know/understand more." Note that in such a sentence there's no difference between using a future (e.g. ''tṛliriṣyari'' here) or a present indicative (''tṛlirdia'' here).
| ||
: ''pū liliā bunā gėrisa gīti tami liliā bunā gu gīti ša.'' "if my father were a lake, he wouldn't be my father." | : ''pū liliā bunā gėrisa gīti tami liliā bunā gu gīti ša.'' "if my father were a lake, he wouldn't be my father." | ||
* Unfulfillable past conditions, where the condition could have been fulfilled in the past but wasn't. The ''pū-''clause is always in perfective subjunctive, while the other may be either imperfective or perfective depending on the meaning. | * Unfulfillable past conditions, where the condition could have been fulfilled in the past but wasn't. The ''pū-''clause is always in perfective subjunctive, while the other may be either imperfective or perfective depending on the meaning. | ||
: ''mei tati pū kulevitaṃte yaiva | : ''mei tati pū kulevitaṃte yaiva gātarireti.'' "if I had said 'yes', everything would be different (now)." | ||
: ''mei tati pū kulevitaṃte tami gu nagyevite ša.'' "if I had said 'yes', that wouldn't have happened." | : ''mei tati pū kulevitaṃte tami gu nagyevite ša.'' "if I had said 'yes', that wouldn't have happened." | ||
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| father || buinā || tāmvāram || <small>either, depending on context</small> | | father || buinā || tāmvāram || <small>either, depending on context</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| girlfriend/boyfriend/significant other || laftrækna || | | girlfriend/boyfriend/significant other || laftrækna || lilelkhlaflunivas || laftrækna | ||
|- | |- | ||
| house || kita || rowspan=2 | amaha<ref>''kita'' is still used when referring to the building alone.</ref> || kita | | house || kita || rowspan=2 | amaha<ref>''kita'' is still used when referring to the building alone.</ref> || kita | ||
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* Quaestorships are not divided in circuits, so the quaestorship (''ṭumma'') name alone is used, followed by the municipality if it's not one of the core wards. | * Quaestorships are not divided in circuits, so the quaestorship (''ṭumma'') name alone is used, followed by the municipality if it's not one of the core wards. | ||
* Dioceses divided in provinces first usually note the province (''ṣramāṇa'') before the circuit. | * Dioceses divided in provinces first usually note the province (''ṣramāṇa'') before the circuit. | ||
* The inter-parish territory ('' | * The inter-parish territory (''maimānāyusire ṣramāṇa'') is usually optional, but can be added to disambiguate. | ||
* Unincorporated territory, not part of any municipality, note the name of the territory ('' | * Unincorporated territory, not part of any municipality, note the name of the territory (''ėlemānāyusire ṣramāṇa''). | ||
The second part of the address starts with (in large cities) the borough ('' | The second part of the address starts with (in large cities) the borough (''martausire poga'') or equivalent, or the hamlet (''mūrė'') in extra-parish territories or rural areas. This is followed, if there's one, by the zone (''jarāh''), which is a smaller non-statistical subdivision; this is optional if the address is a street name.<br/> | ||
The structure hereafter is different between addresses in named streets and those with block numbers: | The structure hereafter is different between addresses in named streets and those with block numbers: | ||
* In the latter case, the most common overall, each zone is divided in "fields" (''jāṇa'', pl. ''jāṇai''), which are then divided in building blocks (''kitalāṇa'', pl. ''-lāṇai''); | * In the latter case, the most common overall, each zone is divided in "fields" (''jāṇa'', pl. ''jāṇai''), which are then divided in building blocks (''kitalāṇa'', pl. ''-lāṇai''); | ||
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Two examples of addresses in the city of Līlasuṃghāṇa follow: | Two examples of addresses in the city of Līlasuṃghāṇa follow: | ||
: 20 10052 — nanašīrama : līlasuṃghāṇa ga ṭumma<br/> | : 20 10052 — nanašīrama : līlasuṃghāṇa ga ṭumma<br/> | ||
: kvælskiñšvålten h- : latirlārvājuṣi : | : kvælskiñšvålten h- : latirlārvājuṣi : 3de j- : 9de ki-lā- : 19 s- : 3 šfl-: 8 l- | ||
The abbreviations '''h-''' (''hālgara'', "district", the name of wards in Līlasuṃghāṇa only), '''j-''', '''ki-lā-''', '''s-''', '''šfl-''', and '''l-''' may be omitted.<br/> | The abbreviations '''h-''' (''hālgara'', "district", the name of wards in Līlasuṃghāṇa only), '''j-''', '''ki-lā-''', '''s-''', '''šfl-''', and '''l-''' may be omitted.<br/> | ||
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===Gendered and gender-neutral terms=== | ===Gendered and gender-neutral terms=== | ||
Chlouvānem is, when it comes to natural gender, mostly a genderless language. | Chlouvānem is, when it comes to natural gender, mostly a genderless language. As there is no grammatical gender, pronouns only mark relative status in formal contexts, and given names and honorific titles are more commonly used anyway - using any kind of pronoun is rude in the most formal contexts). | ||
''→ See [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Honorifics|Chlouvānem morphology § Honorifics]] and [[Chlouvānem/Names#Using_names|Chlouvānem names § Using names]] for more on the use of pronouns, given names, and titles in order to refer to people.'' | ''→ See [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Honorifics|Chlouvānem morphology § Honorifics]] and [[Chlouvānem/Names#Using_names|Chlouvānem names § Using names]] for more on the use of pronouns, given names, and titles in order to refer to people.'' | ||
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==Example texts== | ==Example texts== | ||
[TBA] | |||
[ | |||
==Other resources== | ==Other resources== |
edits