Scellan/Syntax
A mostly-analytic language, Eevo is strongly head-initial (with exceptions in poetry). It usually uses topic-prominent, V2 word order; the topicalized constituent is fronted.
No split ergativity
Faulty accusative
The faulty accusative particle is ym.
- A duvwñ, mol a tehd ym ab.
- The teacher, the child thanks him
Negation
The usual negative particle is twm, which is placed before the verb. hob 'don't!' is used for the negative imperative. In literary or poetic language, ni (indicative) and daw (irrealis) can also be found.
Negative pronouns
- twm sahn (lit. not a thing) = nothing
- twm lias (lit. not a soul) = no one
On double negation
Double negation usually resolves to a positive, since litotes involving negative pronouns are commonly used for emphasis. For example:
- Twm sahn a twm roféelin.
- NEG thing DET NEG change-PRET
- 'Everything changed.' (literally 'Nothing did not change.')
Interrogative
The common question particles (placed at the beginning of the sentence) are:
- sec = interrogative
- sder = negative interrogative
- Sder bo croð niañt dyb çuþ?
- NEG.INTERR COL human also in-COL animal
- Are humans, too, not animals?
es may be used in archaic Eevo.
Copular sentences
There are two (non-interchangeable) ways to say 'X is Y' where X, Y are nouns. (Khmer makes a similar distinction.)
- Y (COP) DET X - This is used to assert that nouns X and Y refer the same thing.
- Ñen a fawl ry ñiþúin awr dy.
- DEM.DIST DET.SG year REL enter-PRET 3PL in
- That was the year in which they entered.
- dyb Y (COP) DET X (lit. X is in the set of all Y's) - This is used to assert that "X is-a Y".
- Dyb croð a Socrátes, paryçtá bo croð. Ceeda paryçtá a Socrátes.
- in-COL human DET.SG Socrates, mortal DET.COL human. therefore mortal DET.SG Socrates
- Socrates is human; humans are mortal. Hence Socrates is mortal.
Example: Sder bo croð niañt dyb çuþ? NEG.INTERR COL human also in-COL animal Are humans, too, not animals?
Noun phrase
Number is marked by a preposed determiner; the determiner is optional for proper nouns.
There is a genitive particle ry, but it is optional.
Determiners can be omitted in elevated language.
Predicates
Eevo has no copula. Instead, the "predicate" or the focused constituent is fronted:
e.g. Dy eell naw ee. = I love her; Ee a (fa) dy eell ren. = It's her that I love
When fronting of a noun occurs, the remaining verb phrase becomes a noun phrase, thus a determiner must be used.
- Twm ziráð syrñ bo [toxrorégin] a go þarcǿma að smøøh bo sbenopats.
- NEG only new COL evolve-PASS.PART DET PST.IPFV inhabit SG world COL dinosaur
- The world of the dinosaurs was not solely occupied by the newly-evolved.
In some tenses (progressive, perfect) the particle fa can be used after the a when fronting.
- Dy iant a duvwñ.
- The teacher is sleeping.
- Duvwñ a (fa) dy iant.
- It's the teacher who is sleeping.
Contrasting
Contrastive "partial clauses" just use the topic without repeating the comment.
- Sani dy ell ee Maið, ah twm Hmorill.
- Sani loves Maið, but Hmorill does not [love him].
- Maið dy ell Sani ym ob, ah twm Gelli.
- Sani loves Maið, but she does not love Gelli.
Existence
The verb room is used for existence.
Clause types
Time clauses
Deranked time clauses can be formed by using a preposition, most commonly dy 'when', ñal 'before', and 'tyn' 'after'. The subject of the time clause is marked with the genitive ry.
Ex.
- dy cri riav 'when we walk', lit. 'at our walking', or dy cri 'when walking'.
Relative clauses
- no relativizer is used when the head is the subject in the relative clause
- ry is used otherwise, possibly with a resumptive pronoun
- resumptive pronouns are optional - hence relative clauses can end in a preposition as in English
- This state of affairs came about because the older resumptive pronominal affixes on prepositions elided and the emphatic pronoun remained optional.
- for places, cah 'there' can be used as a resumptive pronoun
- in formal writing, the head may be repeated instead of using a resumptive pronoun to eliminate ambiguity (cf. mathematical writing)
- for relativizing sentences or statements, taw 'what' is used
- ... taw þwmoñéed emb vyðár tyþ.
- what confirm COMP equal two
- ...which confirms that the two are equal.
- dlïahar ry twm go sovl awb ber (awr)
- event-PLV REL NEG IPFV hear 1EX about (3PL)
- events that we did not hear of
Complement clauses
The complementizer is emb.
Eevo provides other syntaxes for complement clauses which are non-finite...
Conditional clauses
Generally true statement:
- I tøøh a ñwi, (coþ) gias a cnoo. [also found in high register: Tøøhor a barah, ...]
- If it rains, (then) the grass is wet.
Conditional on a possible future event:
- I tøøht a ñwi, faht gias a cnoo.
- If it rains [lit. if it will rain] the grass will be wet.
- Tahd a fiar a criht, naw a criht.
- whither A 2SG A go.FUT, 1SG A go.FUT
- Wherever you go, I will go.
Hypothetical supposition/a less likely "if":
- If it rained, the grass would be wet.
Counterfactual supposition:
- Had it rained, the grass would have been wet.
Time clauses (when, while, before, after) work similarly.
Method clauses
Method clauses ("by X-ing") use the construction nai + VN.
Modal expressions
- ñiwð naw = I want to
- Beð ryn a... = I have to (lit. it is my part to)
- Colloquially: beðyn, beðes, beðeb, beðee, beðyñ, beðiav, beðeg, beðed, beðer, beðy çar
- Cwllyn a... = I can (< it is open for me to)
- Conjugation: cwllyn, cwlles, cwlleb, cwllee, cwllyñ, cwlliav, cwlleg, cwlled, cwller, cwlly çar
- Orr llyn a... = I should...
- Dewm ryn a... = I may... (lit. it is my right to)
- The possessive pronoun can be omitted in casual speech.
- Ulyn naw... = I might... (probabilistic)
Topicalization
Eevo can topicalize constituents by fronting them in front of the focused constituent. However, the topicalized phrase must be set off by a strong comma in the native script.
- Dyð otsón, botín aversfits teþ zydóñ maw hugmasgen.
- in-DET.SG plane, always intersect two line not parallel
- In a plane, two nonparallel lines always intersect.
Infinitive absolute
In an infinitive absolute construction, the verb is repeated once before being "conjugated" for TAM. This construction is used to express the meaning of "indeed" or "it's true that", but often a "but" clause follows.
- Fyñg lly fyñg ob rree ciab.
- die FUT.PERF die 3SG.M day one
- It's true that he'll die one day. [lit. a dying he is to die]