Atlantic

Rumonian
nimba rumoniha
Pronunciation	[[ˈnimba ruˈmɔnixa]]
Created by	Lili21
Date	Jan 2019
Setting	TBD
Ethnicity	TBD
Native speakers	TBD (TBD)
Language family	Indo-European Italic Romance Rumonian
Official status
Official language in	TBD

Rumonian (natively rumonih [ruˈmɔnix] or nimba rumoniha [ˈnimba ruˈmɔnixa]) is a Romance language aesthetically inspired by selected sound changes in various other Romance languages, most notably Sicilian, Romansh, French, and various dialects of Lombard, especially Alpine ones^(LMO). It also includes some features taken by my now-abandoned former romlang projects, Wendlandish and Atlantic, as well as some unique features, such as intervocalic voiceless stops leniting to voiceless fricatives instead of voiced stops (like the Tuscan gorgia, but here it's become phonemic).

It aims to be an extremely conservative Romance language in its morphology, with many irregularities directly deriving from Latin, and with little analogical levelling; for example, the different ways to build the perfect are maintained almost without change for nearly every inherited verb except for those in the productive first conjugation. The development of the various synthetic tenses is however almost identical to that of Portuguese, except for the innovative future and conditional which are respectively different and non-existant in Rumonian. It also maintains neuter nouns as distinct from the other two genders.

It is not meant to fit with existing Romance languages in the sense I purposely took as inspirations various features from all over the Romance-speaking world, and therefore does not fit in any subgrouping. Lexically, I chose to stick to Latin and Ancient Greek roots (the latter in more abstract and formal vocabulary, and in a somewhat higher number than in other Romance languages), generally avoiding other foreign words unless attested in some form of Latin or (non-Modern) Greek, or a small number of borrowings from other Romance languages.

Development

Vocalic changes

The Rumonian vocalic system was formed through an evolution that, while with many common elements with other Romance languages, was unique in having kept long and short /a/ distinct, the former shifting to /ɑ/ and later merging with surviving instances of /ɔ/. Otherwise, the development of vowels was much like Sicilian, as the table below hints:

Latin	Early Rumonian	Modern Rumonian	Example	Cognates
A, Ā	*a, *ɑ	a, o	BARCAM → barca *paraulāre → parlori	Sicilian barca, varca; Italian barca; French barque Sic. parrari; It. parlare; Fr. parler
E, AE, OE	*ɛ	e (atonic: i)	VEDĒRE → viḍiri CENTRUM → centr	Sic. vidiri; It. vedere; Fr. voir Sic. centru; It. centro; Fr. centre
Ē, Ī, I	*i, *i, *ɪ	i	VEDĒRE → viḍiri DŌRMĪRE → durmiri SIMPLICEM → simprici	Sic. vidiri; It. vedere; Fr. voir Sic. durmiri; It. dormire; Fr. dormir Sic. simprici; It. semplice; Fr. simple
O	*ɔ	o	SOMNUM → son	Sic. sonnu; It. sonno; Fr. somme
Ō, Ū, U	*u, *u, *ʊ	u	AMŌREM → amuri NUCEM → nuxi PŪNCTUM → punyt	Sic. amuri; It. amore; Fr. amour Sic. nuci; It. noce; Fr. noix Sic. puntu; It. punto; Fr. point
AU	*ɑw~ɒj	oi ([ɔɪ̯] or [wa])	*aucellum → oichaly	Sic. aceddu; It. uccello; Fr. oiseau

Changes not mentioned in the above table are triggered by neighboring sounds, most particularly l and r:

• As in many Gallo-Italic varieties, Latin short a was backed and rounded before a coda l, see ALTUM → olt (cf. Lombard olt, French haut, Italian alto).
• The same result happened for ul sequences, which were lowered, see FULMEN → folmin (cf. Lom. fulmen, It. fulmine).
• Breaking of Latin short e and o happened in a more limited way than in other Romance languages where it happened; in the standard dialect, it only occurred before original r and l; however, it happened indistinctly in open and closed syllables. In the standard, it also did not happen after velar consonants, though it did happen after h; note that it happened after the palatalization of velars before front vowels, so that short e is broken almost without exceptions. In some dialects, those two vowels were also broken after n and/or after velars. The results are always ia (for broken e) and ua (for broken o), but the semivocalic i in the former merged with a preceding l, n, s, or h to ly, ny, x, and j respectively. See examples:

  Lat. CAELUM, *morit → char, muaril (cf. Fr. ciel, meurt; Lom. ciel, mœur; It. cielo, muore; Spanish cielo, muere, Portuguese céu, (morre))

  Lat. TERRAM, PORTAM → tiara, puarta (cf. Fr. terre, porte; Lom. terra, porta; It. terra, porta; Sp. tierra, puerta; Pt. terra, porta)

Dialectally, vowel breaking was more widespread. In the North, it remained productive late enough to affect original ul (see above), but not original al or even long a (which remained *ɑ(l) for longer) - as in fualmin for standard folmin. This usage extended to later loanwords, as in arbialg "hotel" for standard arbelg (Medieval Latin HARIBERGUM), or in the given name doublet Albert and Albiart (← ALBERTUM). In the North and West, it affected vowels after velars too (see Western cuardi, Northern cuari for Standard/Eastern cordi "heart", or both Northern and Western cuarnu for Std. cornu (← CORNŪ)) and also vowels before n as in buan for Std. bon "good" (← BONUM). The fact these dialects break vowels before n, but still only when stressed, creates even more stem alternations in the conjugation of some verbs compared to standard Rumonian, such as spuandi, spondimu for Std. spondi, spondimu "I declare, we declare" (← SPONDEŌ, SPONDĒMUS).
Reborrowings or learned words, especially Biblical proper nouns, often created doublets, as in the given name "Peter" being usually Piatr [ˈpjatar], but Petrus [ˈpɛtrus] when referring to Saint Peter.

Note that original Latin long a only merged with o later, and never underwent vowel breaking.

Metaphony

Metaphony occurs in a very limited environment, that is, as the result of original non-syllabic /i/ in the [pja bja mja] sequences. The /i/ disappears, raising a preceding [a ɛ ɔ] to [ɛ i u] respectively. It is most commonly encountered in subjunctive verb forms:

• CAMBIAM → *cʲambjã > cemba "I change (subj.)"
• RAPIAM → *rapjã > repa "I steal (subj.)"
• DORMIAM → *dormjã > durma "I sleep (subj.)"

Phonology

Consonants

→ PoA ↓ Manner		Labial	Labiodental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Nasals		m m		n n	ny ɲ
Plosives	Voiceless	p p		t t		c, qu k
	Voiced	b b		d d		g, gu ɡ
Affricates					ch, c tɕ j, g dʑ
Fricatives	Voiceless		f f	s, ss s	x, h ç (x ɕ)	h x~χ
	Voiced		v v	s z
Liquids				r r l l	(ly ʎ)
Approximants		u w			i, ly j

The phonemes /ɕ ʎ/ are only found in some dialects; Standard Rumonian merges them with /ç j/ respectively. In the dialects where /ɕ/ is a distinct phoneme, [ç x] are in complementary distribution, with the former occurring before front vowels and the latter elsewhere.

/l/ is realized as a voiceless lateral fricative [ɬ] word-finally and before voiceless consonants, and as its voiced equivalent [ɮ] before voiced consonants.

In standard Rumonian, voiced stops are allophonically geminated after a stressed vowel, e.g. in pubric "public" /ˈpubrik/ [ˈpubːrik] or abidihu "I decline" /ˈabidiχu/ [ˈabːidiχu].

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	i i		u u
Mid	e ɛ		o ɔ
Low		a a

Orthography

c, g, h

The letters c, g, h have different pronunciations depending on the following vowel:

• Before a, o, u they represent /k ɡ χ/
• Before i, e they represent /tɕ dʑ ç/

Note that the /ç/ phoneme may also be written x in all positions due to a general sound shift, representing earlier /ɕ/ when written as such. Some Western dialects still pronounce x as /ɕ/. In order to write the same sounds before the opposite pair of letters, the following letters or digraphs are used:

• Palatal sound + a, o, u → ch, j, x
• Velar sound + i, e → qu, gu; the sequences /χi χe/ do not exist in Rumonian.

Epenthesis

Epenthetic unwritten vowels are found in most dialects in virtually every word-final written cluster, except for nasal+stop ones, where only the nasal is pronounced. The epenthetic vowel is always unstressed and of the same quality of the preceding vowel. They are not analyzed as phonemic.

Examples:

• olt "high, tall" (m./n. sg.) /ɔlt/ [ˈɔlɔt] (cf. olta "high, tall" (f. sg./n. pl.) /ˈɔlta/ [ˈɔɬta])
• vestr "your(s)" (m./n. sg.) /vɛstr/ [ˈvɛstɛr] (cf. vestra "your(s)" (f. sg./n. pl.) /ˈvɛstra/ [ˈvɛstra])
• agr "field"/aɡr/ [ˈaɡːar] (cf. agrus "fields" /ˈaɡrus/ [ˈaɡːrus])
• spuns "declared" (m./n. sg.) /spuns/ [ˈspunus] (cf. spunsa "declared" (f. sg./n. pl.) /ˈspunsa/ [ˈspunsa])
• punyt "point" /puɲt/ [puɲ] (cf. punytus "points" /ˈpuɲtus/ [ˈpunʲtʲʉs])
• voḍunt "they go" /ˈvɔðun/ [ˈvɔðun]

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns do not inflect for case, just for number, and have different pluralization patterns inherited by the Latin declensions and their various subtypes, including those for Greek nouns. Gender is not marked on the nouns themselves, but on accompanying adjectives and articles.

Singular marker	Plural marker	Gender	Notes	Origin	Examples
-a	-os	mostly feminine a few masculine ones	productive for feminine nouns	1st declension; some masculine nouns were originally Greek.	afa → afos (water(s)) (f) poïṭa → poïṭos (poet(s)) (m)
-i	-is	masculine, feminine		3rd declension (m./f. nouns)	lavuri → lavuris (work(s)) (m) parti → partis (part(s)) (f)
	-a	neuter		3rd declension (n. nouns) with reanalyzed stems	cordi → corda (heart(s)) (n)
	-inya	neuter	movable -n in the singular	3rd declension (n. nouns)	numi → numinya (name(s)) (n)
	-os	feminine		1st declension for Greek nouns	ninfi → ninfos (nymph(s)) (f)
-∅	-us	masculine	productive	2nd and 4th declension (m. nouns)	vent → ventus (wind(s)) (m) vioṭih → vioṭihus (travel(s)) (f)
	-a	neuter	the last consonant may be modified	2nd declension (n. nouns), a few 3rd declension ones	nimal → nimalya (animal(s)) (n)
-o	-us	masculine neuter in learned borrowings	movable -n in the singular	2nd declension for Greek nouns (m./n. nouns)	finomino → finominus (phaenomenon, -a) (m)
-u	-a	neuter		4th declension (n. nouns)	cornu → corna (horn(s)) (n)

Vocative

Masculine given names (and a small number of common nouns) in Rumonian have a distinct vocative form. This ending, -u, is not a continuation of the original Latin vocative; instead, it can be explained as a lengthening of the final vowel of original -UM nouns, therefore reconstructing the Pre-Rumonian form as *-ū, which prevented the vowel from being dropped.

The vocative form is used, in popular speech, for every masculine given names which ends in a consonant; prescriptive grammar, however, does not accept it for the common Greek names which had a different ending (and typically end in stressed -os, -on, or -es).
Some examples:

• Cir → Ciru!
• Albert → Albertu!
• Ginnar → Ginnaru!
• Piatr → Piatru!
• Xenofon → Xenofon! (standard), Xenofonu! (colloquial)
• Diocles → Diocles! (standard), Dioclesu! (colloquial)
• Arquimedi → Arquimedi! (does not end in a consonant)

Adjectives

Adjectives follow two different declensions, one with four distinct forms and another with three. Neuter nouns take masculine singular agreement when singular, and feminine singular when plural.

Declension	Masculine sg. Neuter sg.	Feminine sg. Neuter pl.	Masculine pl.	Feminine pl.
First	-∅	-a	-us	-os
Second	-i		-is

First declension

Singular ex.: nind puir, ninda pelya, nind cordi = "handsome boy", "beautiful girl", "kind heart"

Plural ex.: nindus puirus, nindos pelyos, ninda corda = "handsome boys", "beautiful girls", "kind hearts"

Second declension

Singular ex.: amix viroci, amixa virocha, joixi viroci = "real friend", "real friend", "real pleasure"

Plural ex.: amicus virocis, amixos virocis, joixa virocha = "real friends", "real friends", "real pleasures"

Comparatives and superlatives

Rumonian, unlike other Romance languages, maintained the synthetic forms for comparatives and superlatives, though it still uses the common Romance analytic forms in less formal styles:

• Formal:

  Lucia i Tecra iarunt oltos. "Lucy and Thecla are tall."

  Tecra ê olxura pu Lucia. "Thecla is taller than Lucy."

  Tecra ê olxissima. "Thecla is the tallest one."

• Informal:

  Tecra ê prus olta pu Lucia. "Thecla is taller than Lucy."

  Tecra ê la prus olta. "Thecla is the tallest one."

In some mostly set phrases, the synthetic comparatives are always used, like in Il Monti Chandiḍ ê il monti olxissim di Francia i Itolya. "Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in France and Italy" (never, while grammatically correct, "ê il monti prus olt").
Analytic comparatives use prus "more" (or miny "less"), the adjective, and pu introducing the comparison term (the latter also in synthetic comparatives). Analytic superlatives use the article before prus or miny, while synthetic comparatives never use the article.

Synthetic comparatives are, for all adjectives, second declension adjectives formed with -iuri (with i assimilating to the previous consonant):

Singular: arun olxuri, turi olxura, nimal olxuri "taller student", "taller tower", "taller animal"

Plural: arunis olxuris, turis olxuris, nimalya olxura "taller students", "taller towers", "taller animals"

Adjectives in -rCi or -lCi typically have -Criuri (e.g. charilbi "famous" → ciribriuri "more famous")

For most adjectives, synthetic superlatives are first declension adjectives in -issim:

Singular: arun olxissim, turi olxissima, nimal olxissim "tallest student", "tallest tower", "tallest animal"

Plural: arunis olxissimus, turis olxissimos, nimalya olxissima "tallest students", "tallest towers", "tallest animals"

Adjectives in -rCi or -lCi (-ER in Latin) form the superlative in -iarim, e.g. charilbi → ciribiarim "most famous".
Adjectives in -iri (-ILIS in Latin) form the superlative in -ilyim, e.g. faxiri "easy" → faxilyim "easiest".

Irregular forms

Some adjectives exclusively have synthetic forms which are irregular or suppletive. Often, Rumonian replaced the positive grade with a different adjective, similar to other Romance languages (as in PRESSUM, VETULUM, MINŪTUM instead of PROPINQUUM, SENEM, PARVUM), but kept the irregular forms, adding more suppletion.

Adjective	Positive	Comparative	Superlative
	bon (dial. buan) (good')	milyuri (better)	utim (dial. oitim, autim) (best)
	mal (bad, evil')	pijuri (worse)	pessim (worst)
	grandi (great, large)	mojuri (greater)	maxim (greatest)
	minuṭ (dial. parv) (small)	minuri (lesser)	minim (least)
	murt (dial. mult) (much, many)	prus (more)	plurim (most)
	press (near, close)	prupiuri (nearer)	proxim (nearest, next)
	postir (next, future, following)	postiriuri (later)	postrim (last, latest)
	vialt (dial. velt) (old, aged)	sinyuri (or an. prus vialt) (older, elder)	sinissim ('oldest, eldest')
	juvini (young, youthful)	junyuri (or an. prus juvini) (younger)	junissim ('youngest')

Articles, demonstratives, and possessives

The indefinite article and the possessives are inflected like first declension adjectives; the definite article and the distal demonstrative, however, have a distinct form for the neuter singular.

Type	Masculine sg.	Neuter sg.	Feminine sg. Neuter pl.	Masculine pl.	Feminine pl.
Definite article	il	lu	la	lus	los
Indefinite article	nu		una	unus	unos
This, these (non-distal)	lûnc		lânc	lûsus	lôsos
That, those (distal)	lûric	ludic	lâric	lûsic	lôsic
meu, teu, seu	meu		ma	meus	mos
nostr, vestr	nostr		nostra	nostrus	nostros

The remaining possessives (eiu, ilur, ilor, ipsur, ipsor), which derive from genitive forms, are not inflected.

Rumonian, unlike other Romance languages with a two-way demonstrative distinction, uses the "proximal" form for medial demonstratives, which is hence termed "non-distal":

Lûnc vixilc pu eu hoi ê ciruly. "This car that I have is blue." (cf. Italian "Questa macchina che io ho è blu")

Lûnc vixilc pu tu hais ê ciruly. "That (lit. this) car that you have is blue." (cf. It. "Quella/codesta macchina che tu hai è blu")

Ludic vixilc pu Lucia hal ê ciruly. "That car that Lucy has is blue." (cf. It. "Quella macchina che ha Lucia è blu")

Correlatives

	Demonstrative	Relative	Interrogative	Indefinite relative	Indefinite
				sit-...-fuaril	ar-, arpol
basic	lûnc ...	pi? (person) piḍ? (thing)	pi pu	sit-pi-fuaril sit-pu-fuaril	arpol un ...
number	tantu	pol		sit-pot-fuaril	arpol
type	tori	pori?	ilpori ...	sit-pori-fuaril	alpori
place where	ivi	uvi		sit-uvi-fuaril	arpol uvi
manner	sic	pundo		sit-pundo-fuaril	arpol pundo
time	nunc	pandu		sit-pandu-fuaril	arpandu

Indefinite relatives follow the noun or whatever they refer to:

Do-m duna cupalca sit-pori-fuaril. "Give me any [kind of] glass/any glass you want."

Iṭurus iarin sit-uvi-fuaril tu viaris. "We will go anywhere you want."

Numerals

1 un (m/n), una (f)

2 du (m/n), dos (f)

3 tris (m/f), tria (n)

4 patol

5 pimpi

6 sex

7 seuti

8 oitu

9 noi

10 dexi

11 undixi

12 duḍixi

13 triḍixi

14 paturdixi

15 pindixi

16 siḍixi

17 seutendixi

18 oituḍixi, arch. duḍi(vi)xinti

19 novendixi, arch. undi(vi)xinti

20 vinti, arch. vixinti

21 vinti un (m/n), vinti una (f)

(...)

30 tirjinto

40 pardointo

50 pimpointo

60 sixointo

70 seutointo

80 oitointo

90 nunointo

100 cent

(...)

200 duxentus (m), duxentos (f), duxenta (n)

300 tircentus (m), tircentos (f), tircenta (n)

400 pardingentus (m), pardingentos (f), pardingenta (n)

500 pingentus (m), pingentos (f), pingenta (n)

600 sixentus (m), sixentos (f), sixenta (n)

700 seutingentus (m), seutingentos (f), seutingenta (n)

800 oitingentus (m), oitingentos (f), oitingenta (n)

900 nungentus (m), nungentos (f), nungenta (n)

1000 mily

x000 ~(n) milya (e.g. 2000 du milya, 3000 tria milya)

Pronouns

The Rumonian pronoun system has less forms than Latin does, but is still (clitic system aside) more complex than other Romance languages. A peculiarity, shared with a few languages such as older forms of Italian, is that there is an animacy distinction in the third person pronouns, with animate forms derived from the Latin demonstratives (ILLUM, cf. It. egli, ella), and the inanimate ones derived from the emphatics (IPSUM, cf. It. esso, essa).

Person & Class / Case			Nominative	Accusative		Oblique		Possessive
				Full	Clitic1	Full	Clitic1
1SG			eu	mi	-(u)m	mivi	-(u)mi	meu
2SG			tu	ti	-(u)t	tivi	-(u)ti	teu
3SG	Animate	Masculine	ilu		-ru, -lu2	li	-(u)l	eiu
		Feminine	ila		-ra, -la2
	Inanimate	Masculine	ipsu		-(s)u	si	-si
		Neuter
		Feminine	ipsa		-(s)a
1PL			nus		-(u)n	nuis	-(u)nuv	nostr
2SG			vus		-(u)v	vuis	-(u)vuv	vestr
3SG	Animate	Masculine	ilus		-rus, -lus1	lis	-ris, -lis1	ilur
		Feminine	ilos		-ros, -los1			ilor
	Inanimate	Masculine	ipsus		-(s)us	sis	-sis	ipsur
		Neuter	ipsa		-(s)a
		Feminine	ipsos		-(s)os			ipsor
Refl.			—	si	-(u)s	sivi	-(u)si	seu

Table notes:

1. When preceding any clitic, third person singular -l becomes -t (e.g. ilu viḍil "he sees", ilu viḍit-un "he sees us").
2. The forms with -l- are used after consonants, except for t, d, or n; those with -r- after vowels and the previously mentioned consonants.

For courtesy forms, traditionally the locution la sinyuria is used (e.g. la sinyuria dixil "you [formal] say"), with third person singular agreement no matter if the referent is plural or singular. Among younger generations, French influence has made vus (e.g. vus dixiṭi as the formal equivalent of tu dixis) also common as a courtesy form.

The accusative and indirect forms most commonly used are the clitic ones. The full forms are used for emphasis and after prepositions.

• Heri viḍi-ru "I saw him yesterday"
• Heri viḍi-ra "I saw her yesterday"
• Heri viḍis-lu "You saw him yesterday"
• Cros daṭur-um iaris dil cuḍixi? "Will you give me the book tomorrow?" (note that Rumonian is secundative!)
• Cros daṭur-li iaris? "Will you give that tomorrow?"
• Du-ru dil cuḍixi "I give him the book"
• Lu vos agroxa-mi "I like the vase"

Furthermore, there are the two weak adverbial pronouns an and iv. The former is used to replace indefinite, quantitative, and ablative expressions, as well as arguments introduced by di; the latter replaces locative and lative ones:

• Parlantis iromu dâ nova taviarna di vistimenta "we were talking about the new clothing shop" → Parlantis an iromu "we were talking about it"
• Amiṭa ma hal pimpi virocha vosa sininsa "my aunt has five real Chinese vases" → Amiṭa ma an hal pimpi "my aunt has five of them"
• – Hais una tauleta? "do you have a tablet" – Oc, an hoi (una) "yes, I have (one)"
• Amix meu fuara voil e insura "my friend goes out of the apartment" → Amix meu fuara an voil "my friend goes out of it"
• Sungu iṭur nôs Aṭinos "I will go to Athens" → Iv sungu iṭur "I will go there"
• Iaris nôs Sirohusos? "Are you in Syracuse?" → Oc, iv sungu "Yes, I am there"

Prepositions

(TBA)

• di — of; also introduces themes of ditransitive verbs and the arguments of certain verbs. It also translates "about, concerning of" (sur is a synonym here).

  Ê la suari di Mateu. "it's Matthew's sister."

  Frolti meu dat-um dû vos. "my brother gives me the vase"

  Oc, quior ê pu memini di Lucia! "yes, of course I remember Lucy!"

  Ê un cuḍixi dâ Bialya Puniha. "It is a book about the Punic Wars."

  Los ninyos nila chalyi apelyant di trasmirgimenta prûs ambrantis. "The stripes in the road are called by the name of 'crossing for pedestrians'."

  Nila taviarna apiri-m di oly, pon insifiḍ, arpol uva, tir, i orivos. "In the shop I buy oil, salt-less bread, some grapes, cheese, and olives."

  Filyuar meu dimandovit-um dôs noviṭoṭis. "My son asked me about the news/what's new."

  Turi-t dil pon. "I brought you the bread."

• aḍ – expresses motion to or state in certain places. Typically, some nouns require aḍ, usually public services, islands, or open spaces, plus singular names of cities and plural countries, while others require in. It also introduces gerunds.

  Sungu â staxuni. "I am at the station."

  Voḍu aḍ Midran. "I'm going to Milan."

  Suari ma vivil aḍ Britonya. "My sister lives in Great Britain."

  Nil anu proxim iṭur sungu âlos Sinos. "Next year I'll go to China."

  Ê sis mexa hura aḍ atendiri âlus missus. "He said he waited half an hour at the post office."

• in — expresses motion to or state in certain places, including most closed buildings, singular countries, and plural names of cities (the reverse of aḍ). It also introduces many expressions of time.

  Sungu nila taviarna. "I am in the shop."

  Voḍu in Grecia. "I am going to Greece."

  Suari ma vivil nôs Sirohusos. "My sister lives in Syracuse."

  Nil anu proxim iṭur sungu âlos Sinos. "Next year I'll go to China."

• e — expresses motion from (ablative), as well as "from" when referring to a time back in the past. It is also used for derivation or specifying a material, as well as translating "of" when it implies the result of something:

  Fuara voḍu êxa staxuni. "I go out of the station."

  Cros rivertu e Londiny. "I'm coming back from London tomorrow."

  Lûnc fuxili ê êxu Sihund Bialy Glubori. "This rifle is from World War II."

  Lânc charṭeda ê e foj. "This chair is made of beech wood."

  Los nimbos rumonxos provenint êxu laṭin. "Romance languages are derived from Latin."

  Frigiranta, congiranta, chariḍoria. La mirolca êxu elaso. "Fridges, freezers, heating. Wonders of progress."

• cu — expresses an instrument or a comitative argument.

  July secal arbolis câ sihuri. "Julius cuts trees with the axe."

  Prefiaru scriviri cuna pena. "I prefer to write with a pen."

  Trubu cu Tecra. "I sing with Thecla."

• tras — through; among (in this case usually without article); expresses the agent in passive sentences.

  Duhu trâu chastr. "I drive through the city."

  Tecra ê la arumma mais chandinta tras crassi. "Thecla is the best/most clever student in the class."

  Lânc faita spunsa fiarunt trâl guviarn. "These deeds were promised by the government."

  Lus cuḍixis hoi aḍeut doṭ tras Mateu. "The books have been given to me by Matthew."

  Ila difusit-us surxoitoṭa trâ proṭista. "She was left surprised by the protest."

  When the focus is on walking through something, or the means of transport is stated, the construction of a motion verb + tras + indirect object is typically replaced by the transitive verb trasmergiri "to cross":

  Voḍu trâ chalyi (in peḍis/cu aḍ ambrori) "I cross the road (on foot)" → Trasmergu la chalyi.

  Duhimu trâ Hilvixa "We drive across [the whole of] Switzerland" → Trasmirgimu la Hilvixa (in vixilc).

• sur — on, over, about (di is a synonym for the latter):

  Iv ê nivi sursa teita dûs eḍifixus. "There is snow on the roofs of buildings."

  Nuiros vuarant sursu chastr. "Clouds fly/float over the city."

  Ê un cuḍixi sursa Bialya Puniha. "It is a book about the Punic Wars."

• pro – for, for the benefit of; for measures. Also used as a conjunction with a supine meaning (but ut is preferred in formal usage):

  Lânc flura iarunt pro tivi. "These flowers are for you."

  Los ninyos nila chalyi apelyant di trasmirgimenta prûs ambrantis. "The stripes in the road are called by the name of 'crossing for pedestrians'."

  Bilyomu prâ gluria di Ruma! "We fight for the glory of Rome!"

  Lânc ê una hilnyura pro un litr di cirivixa. "This is a glass [that can contain] one litre of beer."

  Faitur-u sungu nunc, pro cros haviri prus temp feiror. "I'll do it now, in order to have more free time tomorrow."

  Filyuara ma dimandovit-um pro eu dixissi la aliteia. "My daughter asked me to tell [her] the objective truth."

  La leva dâ agora proposiṭ hal una lixi prûs direitus varihoṭus. "It seems that the left in Parliament has proposed a law for LGBT rights."

• groxa — thanks to, because of + positive experience (< GRĀTIĀ, with pre-Rumonian shortening of the final vowel)

  Dinoji iv iarunt miny muartis nilu cunolb groxa lus eurimenis nila iatria. "Today there are less [cases of] death during infancy, thanks to the discoveries in medical science."

  Groxa lu bon etiri heri vosimu âlu mari. "Because of the nice weather we went to the sea yesterday."

  Inteligi-su groxa stuxa ma. "I understand it because of my studies/what I studied."

• estra, meaning "outside" (stative), also figuratively:

  Aṭendu estra la ircexa. "I wait outside the church."

  Nila seumona proxima sissur sungu estra la tiara. "Next week I'll be abroad (lit. "outside the land")."

  Lûnc ê estra ofixa ta. "This isn't part of your duties (lit. "this is outside your duties")."

• iusta, meaning "near" (in space or time)

  Lus missus iarunt iusta monxuni ma. "The post office is near my house."

  Iarin iusta la Risureuxuni. "We are close to Easter. / Easter is near."

  Midran siṭ ê iusta il nimiṭi hilviṭih. "Milan is close to the border with Switzerland."

• circ, meaning "around":

  Lu helicoptero vuaral circû chastr. "The helicopter flies around the city."

  Ambromu circâ pratia. "We walk around the square."

  Circ los curios dil guviarn fuch una massa di pirsunos cu aḍ proṭistori. "Around the governmental offices there was a crowd of people protesting."

• siny, meaning "without". The siḍiri + siny structure (to be without) is frequently used where English prefers "to have no":

  Lânc caramela iarunt siny gliqui. "These sweets are sugar-free (lit. "without sugar").

  No possun pass viviri siny tivi! "I can't live without you!"

  Sungu siny pihunya. "I have no money (lit. "I am without money")."

  Avulc meu ê siny infantis. "My uncle has no children."

• cis, meaning "before", also introducing subordinate clauses with subjunctive.

  Lus missus iarunt cîsa taviarna. "The post office is before the shop."

  Fuṭur ê cîsa dominiha. "It will be/happen before Sunday."

  Faxi-su cis nus rivirtomu! "Do it before we come back!"

• uls, meaning "after" (in time or introducing subordinates) or "beyond".

  La taviarna ê ursus missus. "The shop is after/beyond the post office."

  Fuṭur ê ursa dominiha. "It will be/happen after Sunday."

  Nito tutijurn lus dentis uls tu manxos! "Always brush your teeth after eating."

  Faitur-u sungu uls eu finya. "I'll do it after I finish [this]."

Table of contractions

→ Preposition ↓ Article	di	aḍ	in	e	cu	tras	sur	pro	circ	cis	uls
il	dil	âl	nil	exil	cul	trâl	sûl	prôl	circûl	cis il	ursil
lu	dû	âlu	nilu	êxu	cû	trâu	sursu	prû	circû	cîsu	ursu
la	dâ	â	nila	êxa	câ	trâ	sursa	prâ	circâ	cîsa	ursa
lus	dûs	âlus	nûs	êxus	cu lus (arch.) cûllus	trâus	sur lus	prûs	circ lus	cîsus	ursus
los	dôs	âlos	nôs	êxos	cu los (arch.) cûllos	trôs	sur los	prôs	circ los	cîsos	ursos
un	dun	ân	nun	exun	cun	tras un	sur un	pro un	circ un	cis un	uls un
una	duna	âna	nuna	exuna	cuna	tras una	sur una	pro una	circ una	cis una	uls una

Verbs

Verbs generally have six moods: three finite (indicative, subjunctive, imperative) and three non-finite ones (infinitive, participle, gerundive). Unlike other Romance languages, Rumonian did not develop a conditional mood.

The indicative and subjunctive are composed of various simple tenses plus other compound ones, while the other moods only have a few forms (the imperative) in a single tense, or have a simple tense and a compound one. The indicative simple tenses are present, imperfect, past (from the Latin perfect), and past perfect. The subjunctive only has three: present, imperfect (from the Latin past perfect subj.), and future (from Latin future perfect ind.) - the origin of the various tenses is therefore the same as in other languages like Portuguese.

Verbs in Rumonian are typically cited with three or four principal parts: the infinitive, the 1sg present indicative, the 1sg past indicative, and the past participle; unlike Latin, but like other Romance languages, the infinitive and not the 1sg present indicative is used as citation form. The 1sg present indicative is mostly needed in cases where the root had a short E in Latin which is stressed (and kept or broken) in the 1sg present indicative form, but unstressed in the infinitive (where it therefore became /i/). An example is the verb apilyori "to call, to be called" ← APPELLĀRE, whose 1sg present indicative form is apialyu ← APPELLŌ (cf. cinsiri "to think" (← CĒNSĒRE) and cinsi "I think" (← CĒNSEŌ), where this does not happen due to the different original vowel).

Only the first conjugation is still productive, and it is also the one with the fewest irregular verbs (most verbs in it have the same root in all principal parts).

First conjugation

The first conjugation includes verbs whose infinitive ends in -ori (← -ĀRE).

First conjugation, simple tenses: amori, amu, amovi, amoṭ "to love"

Person	Indicative				Subjunctive			Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Present	Imperfect	Future
1SG	amu	amova	amovi	amiara	ami	amoissi	amiaru	—
2SG	amos	amovos	amoisti	amiaros	amis	amoissis	amiaris	amo
3SG	amal	amoval	amovil	amiaral	amil	amoissil	amiaril	amil
1PL	amomu	amovomu	amoimu	ameromu	amimu	amoissimu	amerimu	amimu
2PL	amoṭi	amovoṭi	amoisti	ameroṭi	amiṭi	amoissiṭi	ameriṭi	amoṭi
3PL	amant	amovant	amoirunt	amiarant	amint	amoissint	amiarint	amint
	Pres. participle	Past participle	Future participle	Gerundive	Infinitive
	amanti	amoṭ	amoṭur	amann	amori

Second conjugation

The second conjugation includes three slightly different patterns, as sound changes coalesced the latter three conjugations of Latin mostly into similar forms. The infinitive for all second conjugation verbs ends in -iri, stressed for those that continue the 2nd and 4th Latin conjugations (← -ĒRE, -IRE) and unstressed for the others, continuing the 3rd conjugation of Latin (← -ERE).

1. The first pattern continues the second conjugation, and has -e- as the thematic vowel in the participles and -i- in the 1SG and 3PL present indicative inflections;
2. The second pattern continues the third conjugation, and also has -e- as thematic vowel for the participles, but -u- in the 1SG and 3PL present indicative inflections;
3. The third pattern, continuing the fourth conjugation, always has -i- as thematic vowel in both participles and 1SG/3PL present indicative.

Few second conjugation verbs are completely regular, and some of them have a fifth principal part, namely the subjunctive present, whose stem has often being modified by diachronically regular palatalization of the last consonant in many verbs (as in sponxa (← SPONDEAM) for the verb spondiri) or sporadic metaphony in a few others (as in cemba (← CAMBIAM) for the verb chambiri). Most second conjugation verbs, furthermore, have a different stem in the perfect, usually inherited from Latin (cf. for the two verbs above spondi "I declare", spofondi "I declared" (← SPONDEŌ, SPOPONDĪ) and chambi "I change", chansi "I changed" (← CAMBIŌ, CAMPSĪ)). There are therefore two different possible exits for the 1SG and 3SG in the perfect, usually depending on how it was conjugated in Latin:

1. Latin perfects in -ĒVĪ, -VĪ, -ĪVĪ: -ei, -isti, -eil, -imu, -isti, -irunt
2. All other verbs: -i, -isti, -il, -imu, -isti, -irunt

The regular past participle for all second conjugation verbs is -iṭ (← -ITUM, -ĪTUM), but many verbs have irregular forms. The future participle for all verbs is formed by adding -ur to the past participle.

Second conjugation (pattern 1), simple tenses: spondiri, spondi, spofondi, spuns(, sponxa) "to declare"

Person	Indicative				Subjunctive			Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Present	Imperfect	Future
1SG	spondi	spondiva	spofondi	spofondiara	sponxa	spofondissi	spofondiaru	—
2SG	spondis	spondivos	spofondisti	spofondiaros	sponxos	spofondissis	spofondiaris	spondi
3SG	spondil	spondival	spofondil	spofondiaral	sponxal	spofondissil	spofondiaril	sponxal
1PL	spondimu	spondivomu	spofondimu	spofonderomu	sponxomu	spofondissimu	spofonderimu	sponxomu
2PL	spondiṭi	spondivoṭi	spofondisti	spofonderoṭi	sponxoṭi	spofondissiṭi	spofonderiṭi	spondiṭi
3PL	spondint	spondivant	spofondirunt	spofondiarant	sponxant	spofondissint	spofondiarint	sponxant
	Pres. participle	Past participle	Future participle	Gerundive	Infinitive
	spondenti	spuns	spunsur	spondenn	spondiri

Second conjugation (pattern 2), simple tenses: tangiri, tangu, tiṭigi, toit "to touch"

Person	Indicative				Subjunctive			Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Present	Imperfect	Future
1SG	tangu	tangiva	tiṭigi	tiṭijara	tanga	tiṭigissi	tiṭijaru	—
2SG	tangis	tangivos	tiṭigisti	tiṭijaros	tangos	tiṭigissis	tiṭijaris	tangi
3SG	tangil	tangival	tiṭigil	tiṭijaral	tangal	tiṭigissil	tiṭijaril	tangal
1PL	tangimu	tangivomu	tiṭigimu	tiṭigeromu	tangomu	tiṭigissimu	tiṭigerimu	tangomu
2PL	tangiṭi	tangivoṭi	tiṭigisti	tiṭigeroṭi	tangoṭi	tiṭigissiṭi	tiṭigeriṭi	tangiṭi
3PL	tangunt	tangivant	tiṭigirunt	tiṭijarant	tangant	tiṭigissint	tiṭijarint	tangant
	Pres. participle	Past participle	Future participle	Gerundive	Infinitive
	tangenti	toit	toitur	tangenn	tangiri

Second conjugation (pattern 3), simple tenses: chambiri, chambi, chansi, chambiṭ(, cemba) "to touch"

Person	Indicative				Subjunctive			Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Present	Imperfect	Future
1SG	chambi	chambiva	chansi	chanxara	cemba	chansissi	chanxaru	—
2SG	chambis	chambivos	chansisti	chanxaros	cembos	chansissis	chanxaris	chambi
3SG	chambil	chambival	chansil	chanxaral	cembal	chansissil	chanxaril	cembal
1PL	chambimu	chambivomu	chansimu	chanseromu	cembomu	chansissimu	chanserimu	cembomu
2PL	chambiṭi	chambivoṭi	chansisti	chanseroṭi	cemboṭi	chansissiṭi	chanseriṭi	chambiṭi
3PL	chambint	chambivant	chansirunt	chanxarant	cembant	chansissint	chanxarint	cembant
	Pres. participle	Past participle	Future participle	Gerundive	Infinitive
	chambinti	chambiṭ	chambiṭur	chambinn	chambiri

The verb fairi (← FACERE), faxu, fixi, fait "to do, make" is a regular pattern 2 second conjugation verb, except for it having contracted forms in the infinitive and in the 2SG and 3SG indicative present; all other forms are regular. The same principle extends to the same forms of the verb voiri (← VĀDERE) "to go", however, it is irregular due to suppletion in other moods and tenses.

Inchoative verbs all follow the second pattern, and their infinitive ends in unstressed -esciri [-ˈɛstɕiri]. Their past always has [-sk-]] (e.g. amesqui "I started to love", amesquisti "you started to love"), and their past participles are regular -esciṭ, -esciṭur. Most of them are derived by other verbs, but some have unique meanings (e.g. cunyussesciri "to meet someone for the first time", or locutions with impersonal verbs such as (tempora) hiviarnescunt "winter is starting" (lit. "times start to winter")).

To be (siḍiri), to have (haviri), and other irregular verbs

The verbs "to be" (siḍiri ← ASSIDĒRE, most of the conjugation from SUM) and "to have" (haviri ← HABĒRE) are irregular. The former is deeply suppletive (inheriting many irregularities from Latin); the latter is functionally a pattern 1 second conjugation verb with widespread irregularities due to contraction and analogy.

"To be", simple tenses: siḍiri, sungu, fui, sis

Person	Indicative				Subjunctive			Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Present	Imperfect	Future
1SG	sungu	iara	fui	fiara	siu	fussi	fiaru	—
2SG	iaris	iaros	fusti	fiaros	sis	fussis	fiaris	es
3SG	ê	iaral	fuch	fiaral	sil	fussil	fiaril	sil
1PL	iarin	iromu	fuimu	firomu	simu	fussimu	firimu	simu
2PL	iariṭ	iroṭi	fusti	firoṭi	siṭi	fussiṭi	firiṭi	esti
3PL	iarunt	iarant	ferunt	fiarant	sint	fussint	fiarint	sint
	Pres. participle	Past participle	Future participle	Gerundive	Infinitive
	siḍenti	sis	sissur	siḍenn	siḍiri

"To have", simple tenses: haviri, hoi, hoibi, haiṭ

Person	Indicative				Subjunctive			Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Present	Imperfect	Future
1SG	hoi	hiva	hoibi	haviara	heia	hoibissi	haviaru	—
2SG	hais	hivos	hoibisti	haviaros	heios	hoibissis	haviaris	hai
3SG	hal	hival	hoibil	haviaral	heial	hoibissil	haviaril	heial
1PL	havimu	hivomu	hoibimu	haveromu	heiomu	hoibissimu	haverimu	heiomu
2PL	haviṭi	hivoṭi	hoibisti	haveroṭi	heioṭi	hoibissiṭi	haveriṭi	haviṭi
3PL	hant	hivant	hoibirunt	haviarant	heiant	hoibissint	haviarint	heiant
	Pres. participle	Past participle	Future participle	Gerundive	Infinitive
	haventi	haiṭ	haiṭur	havenn	haviri

The verb fiariri (to bring) has regular inflections (except for 2SG and 3SG present indicative and 2SG/2PL imperative), but is suppletive:

"To bring", simple tenses: fiariri, fiaru, turi, loṭ

Person	Indicative				Subjunctive			Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Present	Imperfect	Future
1SG	fiaru	firiva	turi	turiara	fiara	turissi	turiaru	—
2SG	fiars	firivos	turisti	turiaros	fiaros	turissis	turiaris	fiar
3SG	fiart	firival	turil	turiaral	fiaral	turissil	turiaril	fiaral
1PL	firimu	firivomu	turimu	tureromu	firomu	turissimu	turerimu	fiaromu
2PL	firiṭi	firivoṭi	turisti	tureroṭi	firoṭi	turissiṭi	tureriṭi	fiarti
3PL	fiarunt	firivant	turirunt	turiarant	fiarant	turissint	turiarint	fiarant
	Pres. participle	Past participle	Future participle	Gerundive	Infinitive
	firenti	loṭ	loṭur	firenn	fiariri

The verb possiri (to be able to), mostly inherited from POSSUM, POSSE, unlike other verbs, wasn't regularized and even lost forms, so that it is defective and relies on participles for all forms except for the present and imperfect indicative and the non-finite ones:

"To be able to", simple tenses: possiri, possun, —, potiṭ

Person	Indicative				Subjunctive			Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Present	Imperfect	Future
1SG	possun	poṭiara	potiṭ sungu	potiṭ iara	poṭenti siu	potiṭ fussi	potiṭur siu potiṭ fiaru	—
2SG	poṭis	poṭiaros	potiṭ iaris	potiṭ iaros	poṭenti sis	potiṭ fussis	potiṭur sis potiṭ fiaris	–
3SG	poṭ	poṭiaral	potiṭ ê	potiṭ iaral	poṭenti sil	potiṭ fussil	potiṭur sil potiṭ fiaril	–
1PL	possumu	poṭiromu	potiṭus iarin	potiṭus iromu	poṭentis simu	potiṭus fussimu	potiṭurus simu potiṭus firimu	–
2PL	poṭesti	poṭiroṭi	potiṭus iariṭ	potiṭus iroṭi	poṭentis siṭi	potiṭus fussiṭi	potiṭurus siṭi potiṭus firiṭi	–
3PL	possunt	poṭiarant	potiṭus iarunt	potiṭus iarant	poṭentis sint	potiṭus fussint	potiṭurus sint potiṭus fiarint	–
	Pres. participle	Past participle	Future participle	Gerundive	Infinitive
	poṭenti	potiṭ	potiṭur	poṭenn	possiri

The verb vialyiri "to want" is irregular, inherited from Latin:

"To want", simple tenses: vialyiri, vuaru, vuli, voriṭ

Person	Indicative				Subjunctive			Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Present	Imperfect	Future
1SG	vuaru	voriva	vuli	vulyara	viari	vulissi	vulyaru	—
2SG	vis	vorivos	vulisti	vulyaros	viaris	vulissis	vulyaris	vialy
3SG	vult	vorival	vulil	vulyaral	viaril	vulissil	vulyaril	viaril
1PL	vorumu	vorivomu	vulimu	vuleromu	virimu	vulissimu	vulerimu	virimu
2PL	vultis	vorivoṭi	vulisti	vuleroṭi	viriṭi	vulissiṭi	vuleriṭi	vialyiṭi
3PL	vuarunt	vorivant	vulirunt	vulyarant	viarint	vulissint	vulyarint	viarint
	Pres. participle	Past participle	Future participle	Gerundive	Infinitive
	vorenti	voriṭ	voriṭur	vorenn	vialyiri

The verb voiri (to go) is a new suppletive from two different Latin verbs, VĀDERE (which gives the infinitive, present participle, indicative present, indicative past, and the imperative) and ĪRE. The infinitive is a contracted form from earlier voḍiri (cf. fairi from faxiri).

"To go", simple tenses: voiri, voḍu, (iva,) vosi, (ira,) iṭ(, ja)

Person	Indicative				Subjunctive			Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Present	Imperfect	Future
1SG	voḍu	iva	vosi	ira	ja	issi	iru	—
2SG	vois	ivos	vosisti	iros	jos	issis	iris	voi
3SG	voil	ival	vosil	iral	jal	issil	iril	jal
1PL	voḍimu	ivomu	vosimu	iromu	jomu	issimu	irimu	jomu
2PL	voḍiṭi	ivoṭi	vosisti	iroṭi	joṭi	issiṭi	iriṭi	voḍiṭi
3PL	voḍunt	ivant	vosirunt	irant	jant	issint	irint	jant
	Pres. participle	Past participle	Future participle	Gerundive	Infinitive
	voḍenti	iṭ	iṭur	ivunn	voiri

Deponent verbs

Deponent and defective verbs have been partially regularized, that is, they have been rendered true active verbs in the present and imperfect indicative and in the subjunctive, but only have analytic forms for the past and pluperfect. Therefore, they all look like Latin semi-deponent verbs.
All deponent verbs in Rumonian are of the second pattern (unstressed) -iri verbs.

There are less deponent verbs than in Latin, but most of them are quite commonly used:

• aḍipisciri "to get, obtain" (also auxiliary) ~ aḍipiscu, aḍeut
• fruiri "to enjoy" ~ fruu, fruit
• groltiri "to thank" ~ groltu, groṭ (dialectally non-deponent groltori/groṭurori, groltu/groṭuru, groltovi/groṭurovi, groṭuroṭ)
• isperiri "to experience" ~ isperu, ispert
• lofiri "to speak" ~ lofu, lofuṭ
• meminiri "to remember" ~ memini, mimint
• obrivisciri "to forget" ~ obriviscu, obriṭ
• opiniri "to think, judge" ~ opinu, opinoṭ (dialectally non-deponent opinori, opinu, opinovi, opinoṭ)
• oriri "to appear" ~ oriu, ort

Periphrastic forms

Rumonian verbs, in addition to the synthetic forms listed above, conjugate using an array of periphrastic forms, here with trubori "to sing" as an example verb:

• Present continuous: present participle + present of siḍiri

  e.g. trubanti sungu "I'm singing"

• Past continuous: present participle + imperfect of siḍiri

  e.g. trubanti iara "I was singing"

• Past reportative (for most verbs) / simple past (for formerly deponent verbs): past participle + present of haviri (transitive verbs)/siḍiri (intransitive)

  e.g. truboṭ hal "[it's said that] (s)he sang" — aḍeut hoi "I got" — iṭ ê "[it's said that] (s)he went"

• Pluperfect reportative (for most verbs) / pluperfect (for formerly deponent verbs): past participle + imperfect of haviri (transitive verbs)/siḍiri (intransitive)

  e.g. truboṭ hival "[it's said that] (s)he had sung" — aḍeut hiva "I had got" — iṭ iaral "[it's said that] (s)he had gone"

• Future: future active participle + present of siḍiri

  e.g. truboṭur sungu "I will sing"

• Future perfect: future active participle + iṭur (or fuṭur) + present of siḍiri

  e.g. truboṭur iṭur/fuṭur sungu "I will have sung"

The passive forms are also formed periphrastically, with a passive participle and the corresponding forms of siḍiri:

• Present: truboṭ ê "it is [being] sung"
• Imperfect: truboṭ iaral "it was [being] sung"
• Past: truboṭ fuch "it has been/was sung"
• Pluperfect: truboṭ fiaral "it had been sung"
• Future: trubann ê "it will be sung"
• Future perfect: trubann iṭur/fuṭur ê "it will have been sung"

Some verbs like apilyori "to call, name", or verbs such as apiri-s "to buy" when used reflexively (see below for that case), are intransitive and can't build an actual passive, but a passive meaning form is made by using the third person plural, e.g. apelyant-u di amuri "it is called 'love' ~ they call it 'love'".

Uniquely among Romance languages, Rumonian has "pseudo-passive" forms which use aḍipisciri (to get, deponent) as an auxiliary verb: they are used with ditransitive verbs, and cast focus on the theme, as Rumonian being secundative means that in true passive forms it's the recipient which becomes subject. However, unlike in true passive forms, the theme is not the subject, and the verb conjugates for the (usually unstated) recipient:

• Present: aḍipiscu doṭ "it is given [to me]"
• Imperfect: aḍipisciva doṭ "it was given [to me]"
• Past: hoi aḍeut doṭ "it has been/was given [to me]"
• Pluperfect: hiva aḍeut doṭ "it was been given [to me]"
• Future: aḍeutur sungu doṭ "it will be given [to me]"
• Future perfect: aḍeutur iṭur/fuṭur sungu doṭ "it will have been given [to me]"

Compare the three forms in this examples:

• Active: Lucia deḍil Francisc dûs cuḍixis.
  Lucia (subj.) gave Francis (recip.; obj.) the books (theme; ind. obj.).
• Passive: Francisc doṭ fuch lus cuḍixis tras Lucia.
  Francis (subj.) was given the books (obj.) by Lucia (agent).
• Pseudo-passive: Lus cuḍixis hal aḍeutus doṭus Francisc tras Lucia.
  The books (synt. obj.) were given to Francis (subj.) by Lucia (agent).

In the last sentence, we can note that the auxiliary form of haviri is in the third person singular, agreeing with "Francis", while the participles are masculine plural, agreeing with "the books".

Some verbs often used in the reflexive, like the above mentioned apiri-s "to buy" (its actual object is the beneficiary, which is treated as being reflexive in the majority of cases this verb is used in, e.g. apiri-m di arpol pon "I buy [myself] some bread"), are actually ditransitive and follow the same argument pattern as dori, and are usually passivized in all three ways, with the third person plural being predominant when there's no stated agent:

• Apirunt-us di tria quilugrama di orisa. "Three kilograms of rice are bought."
• Apisiṭ fui dil pon tras mama ma. "I have been bought the bread by mom."
• Il pon hoi aḍeut apisiṭ tras mama ma. "The bread has been bought for me by mom."

Syntax

Conditional sentences

Not having a conditional mood, unlike most other Romance languages, Rumonian uses the indicative or the subjunctive mood in conditional clauses. The if-clause is introduced by si:

Si vois aḍ Midran, visur iaris il Dom.
[si‿ˈvwas að‿miˈdran viˈzur ˌjaris iɮ‿ˈdɔm]
if. go.IND.PRES.2SG. to. Milan. see.PART.FUT.MASC.SG. be.IND.PRES.2SG. DEF.MASC.SG. cathedral.SG.
If you go to Milan, you'll see the Domm.

Si incharis la afa uls cent graḍus, bulyiṭura ê.
[s‿inˈtɕaris l‿ˈafa ˈulus ˌtɕɛŋ‿ˈɡraðus bujiˈθura ˌɛ]
if. warm-IND.PRES.2SG. DEF.FEM.SG water.SG. beyond. one_hundred. degree-PL. boil.PART.FUT-FEM.SG. be.IND.PRES.3SG.
If you heat water over 100 degrees, it will boil.

Si iaros, lu iaruri apirceutur iaris.
[si ˈjarɔs lu jaˈruri apirtɕeu̯ˈtur ˌjaris]
if. make_a_mistake-IND.PRES.2SG DEF.NEUT.SG mistake.SG. note.PART.FUT-MASC.SG. be.IND.PRES.2SG.
If you make a mistake, you'll notice it.

Speculative conditional sentences use the past or future subjunctive in their if-clause (as in most Romance languages) and, contrary to sentences such as the above ones, the present (not the future, nor the imperfect) indicative in the main clause:

Si fussi cu fami, voḍu â jonya.
[si ˈfusi ku‿ˈfami ˈvɔðu a‿ˈdʑɔɲa]
if. be.SUBJ.PAST.1SG. with. hunger.SG go.IND.PRES.1SG. to.DEF.FEMM.SG. restaurant.SG.
If I were hungry, I'd go to the restaurant.

Si hoibissimu la pihunya, apirimu-n duna charuha novialya.
[si χwaˈbisimu la piˈχuɲa aˈpirimun duna tɕaˈruχa nɔˈvjaja]
if. have.SUBJ.PAST-1PL. DEF.FEMM.SG. money.SG buy.IND.PRES-1PL.SUBJ=1PL.RECIP. PAT-INDEF.FEMM.SG. car.SG new-FEMM.SG.
If we had [enough] money, we'd buy a new car.

Si haverimu la pihunya, apirimu-n duna charuha novialya.
[si χavɛˈrimu la piˈχuɲa aˈpirimun duna tɕaˈruχa nɔˈvjaja]
if. have.SUBJ.FUT-1PL. DEF.FEMM.SG. money.SG buy.IND.PRES-1PL.SUBJ=1PL.RECIP. PAT-INDEF.FEMM.SG. car.SG new-FEMM.SG.
If we'll have [enough] money, we'll buy a new car.

Past speculative conditionals use the pluperfect subjunctive in the if-clause and the past subjunctive in the main one:

Si heri sisa fussi cu fami, issi â jonya.
[si ˈçeri ˈsisa‿ˌfusi ku‿ˈfami isi a‿ˈdʑɔɲa]
if. yesterday. been.PART.PASS-FEMM.SG. be.SUBJ.PAST.1SG. with. hunger.SG go.SUBJ.PAST.1SG. to.DEF.FEMM.SG. restaurant.SG.
If yesterday I had been hungry, I'd have gone to the restaurant.

Si atent hoibissil, viḍissimu-n.
[si aˈtɛnt χwaˈbisiɬ viðiˈsimun]
if. waited.PART.PASS.MASC.SG. have.SUBJ.PAST.3SG. see.SUBJ.PAST-1PL.SUBJ=1PL.OBJ.
If he had waited, we would have seen each other.

Reported speech

Like other Romance languages, in Rumonian references shift in reported speech: the present tense becomes an imperfect; the past becomes pluperfect; the future either remains future or becomes a future-in-the-past, formed with the future participle and the past of siḍiri.

Afiari la puarta.
[aˈfjari la‿ˈpwarta]
open-IND.PRES.1SG. DEF.FEM.SG. door.SG.
I open the door.

Annunxoṭa dixil, pu ila afirival la puarta.
[anunˈçɵθa ˈdiçiɬ pu ˈila afiˈrivaɬ la‿ˈpwarta]
Annunziata. say.IND.PAST.3SG. that. 3SG.ANIM.FEM. open-IND.IMPF.3SG. DEF.FEM.SG. door.SG.
Annunziata said that she opened/was opening the door.

Heri comisis orisa?
[ˈçeri kɔˈmizis ɔˈriza]
yesterday. eat.IND.PAST-2SG. rice.SG.
Did you eat rice yesterday?

Ginnar dimandovit-um, si eu comixara orisa il jurn inanx.
[dʑiˈnar dimanˈdɔvitum si ˈɛu̯ kɔmiˈçæra ɔˈriza iɮ‿ˈdʑurun iˈnanç]
Gennaro. ask-IND.PAST-3SG=1SG.ACC. if. 1SG.NOM. eat.IND.PLUPERF.1SG. rice.SG. DEF.MASC.SG. day.SG. before.
Gennaro asked me if I had eaten rice the day before.

Cros comisura sun orisa.
[ˈkrɔs kɔmiˈzura‿ˌsun ɔˈriza]
tomorrow. eat.PART.FUT-FEM.SG. be.IND.PRES.1SG. rice.SG.
I will eat rice tomorrow.

Charmiala dixit-umi, pu cros ila comisura ê orisa.
[tɕarˈmjala ˈdiçitumi pu ˈkrɔs ˌila kɔmiˈzura‿ˌɛ ɔˈriza]
Carmen. say-IND.PAST-3SG=1SG.DAT. that. tomorrow. 3SG.ANIM.FEM. eat.PART.FUT-FEM.SG. be.IND.PRES.3SG. rice.SG.
Carmen told me that she'll eat rice tomorrow.

Charmiala dixit-umi, pu ila comisura fuch orisa il jurn sifenti.
[tɕarˈmjala ˈdiçitumi pu ˈkrɔs ˌila kɔmiˈzura‿ˌfutɕ ɔˈriza iɮ‿ˈdʑurun siˈfɛnti]
Carmen. say-IND.PAST-3SG=1SG.DAT. that. 3SG.ANIM.FEM. eat.PART.FUT-FEM.SG. be.IND.PAST.3SG. rice.SG. DEF.MASC.SG. day.SG. following.MASC.SG.
Carmen told me that she would have eaten rice the following day.

Texts

The North Wind and the Sun (il Vent Seutentrunori i il Sul)

Un jurn, il vent seutentrunori i il sul iaran discuxentis pro pori e ambus fussil lu prus forti, pandu supiriunxil un vioṭihuri in toa chariḍa.

Concordoṭus fuarunt, pu lu prim, pu cunsihuṭ fussil aḍ fairi il vioṭihuri apu tolyissil la toa, cunsiḍiroṭ fiaril prus forti dil oltr.

Dindi il vent seutentrunori suflesquil, forti pundo poṭiara, seḍ cummais sufloval mais il vioṭihuri nila toa istringivat-us; i nil fini il vent seutentrunori cessovil cu lu isfuarx. Dindi il sul chandesquil chariḍomenti, i suviṭu il vioṭihuri susturil la toa.

Sic il vent seutentrunori deubil concordori, pu il sul lu prus forti e ambus iaral.

IPA:

[un‿ˈdʑurn iɬ‿ˈvɛn sɛu̯tɛntruˈnɔri i‿ɬ ˈsuɬ ˈjaran discuˈçentis prɔ‿ˈpɔri e ˈambus ˈfusiɬ lu prus ˈfɔrti ˈpandu supiˈrjunçiɬ uɱ‿vjɔθiˈχuri in‿ˈtɔ.a ˈtɕariða]

[kɔŋkɔrˈdɔθus ˈfwarun pu lu ˈprim pu kunsiˈχuθ ˈfusiɬ af‿fai̯ri‿ɬ vjɔθiˈχuri apu tɔˈjisiɬ la‿ˈtɔ.a kunsiðiˈrɔθ ˈfjariɬ prus ˈfɔrti diɬ‿ˈɔɬtɔr]

[ˈdindi iɬ‿ˈvɛn sɛu̯tɛntruˈnɔri suˈflɛskiɬ ˈfɔrti pundɔ pɔˈθjara seð kuˈmai̯s suˈflɔvaɬ mai̯s iɬ‿vjɔθiˈχuri nila‿ˈtɔ.a istrinˈdʑivatus i niɬ ˈfini iɬ‿ˈvɛn sɛu̯tɛntruˈnɔri tɕɛˈsɔviɬ cu lu iˈsfwarç . ˈdindi iɬ‿ˈsuɬ tɕanˈdɛskiɬ tɕariðɔˈmɛnti i ˈsuviθu‿ɬ vjɔθiˈχuri susˈturiɬ la‿ˈtɔ.a]

[ˈsik iɬ‿ˈvɛn sɛu̯tɛntruˈnɔri ˈdɛu̯biɬ kɔŋkɔrˈdɔri pu‿ɬ ˈsuɬ lu prus ˈfɔrti e ˈambus ˈjaraɬ]

UDHR Article 1

Tuṭos los ammos noscunt eleuteros i iforos in dinyiṭoṭi i direitus.

Duṭoṭos iarunt di raxuni i cunxenxa i divint feriri-s cul oltr seu nun spiriṭ di froltiriṭoṭi.