Proto-Tungric
Proto-Tungric is the hypothetical ancestor of the Tungric languages.
Introduction
Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the PIE to Proto-Germanic sound changes.
The Italic base of Proto-Tungric has the following features:
- Lacks merger of original /θ, xʷ, f/.
- Stress rules similar to Classical Latin
- Lacks Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
Phonology
Orthography
Consonants
Vowels
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Morphology
Nouns
Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
a-stems
Masculine or neuter.
| *akraz m. "field" | *juką n. "yoke" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *akraz | *akrōz, -ōs | *juką | *jukō |
| Vocative | *akr | |||
| Accusative | *akrą | *akranz | ||
| Genitive | *akrī, -as | *akrǭ | *jukī, -as | *jukǭ |
| Dative | *akrōi | *akraiz | *jukōi | *jukaiz |
| Instrumental | *akrô | *jukô | ||
ō-stems
Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).
| *þauþō f. "people" | ||
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *þauþō | *þauþōz |
| Vocative | ||
| Accusative | *þauþǭ | *þauþōnz |
| Genitive | *þauþōz | *þaudōsą |
| Dative | *þauþōi | *þaudōbiz |
| Instrumental | *þauþô | |
Additionally, there is a rare subclass of ō-stem nouns known as ī/jō-stems. These nouns take the ending -ī in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations have the regular ō-stem endings preceded by -(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).
i-stems
May be any gender. Masculine and feminine are declined the same.
| *minþiz f. "mind" | *mari n. "sea" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *minþiz | *minþēz | *mari | *marjō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *minþį | *minþinz | ||
| Genitive | *minþīz | *minþijǭ | *marīz | *marjǭ |
| Dative | *minþī | *minþibiz | *marī | *maribiz |
| Instrumental | *minþî | *marî | ||
Note: The genitive plural and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative plural are subject to Siever's law.
u-stems
May be any gender. Masculine and feminine are declined the same.
| *farþuz m. "port" | *harnu n. "horn" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *farþuz | *farþawiz | *harnu | *harnuwō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *farþų | *farþunz | ||
| Genitive | *farþauz | *farþuwǭ | *harnauz | *harnuwǭ |
| Dative | *farþawī | *farþubiz | *harnawī | *harnubiz |
| Instrumental | *farþû | *harnû | ||
n-stems
Any gender. Masculine and feminine are conjugated the same. Feminine n-stems are rare, since most original cases were reformed to ōn-stems.
| *gemô m. "man" | *namô n. "name" | *ankwô n. "fat, grease" | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *gemô | *giminiz | *namô | *namnō | *ankwô | *anwinō |
| Vocative | ||||||
| Accusative | *giminį | *gimininz | ||||
| Genitive | *giminiz | *giminǭ | *namniz | *namnǭ | *ankwiniz | *ankwinǭ |
| Dative | *giminī | *gimimbiz | *namnī | *namnibiz | *ankwinī | *ankwimbiz |
| Instrumental | *gimini | *namni | *ankwini | |||
Note:
- Neuter nouns may be declined either as *namô or *ankwô. Generally, neuter nouns ending in *-mô follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.
- Some n-stems have an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative ending).
- n-stems whose nominative singular end in *-ijô or -jô have *-īn- and *-in- respectively instead of expected **-ijin- or **-jin-.
ōn-stems
Masculine or feminine.
| *ahtijō f. "action" | ||
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ahtijô | *ahtijōniz |
| Vocative | ||
| Accusative | *ahtijōnį | *ahtijōninz |
| Genitive | *ahtijōniz | *ahtijōnǭ |
| Dative | *ahtijōnī | *ahtijōmbiz |
| Instrumental | *ahtijōni | |
r-stems
Masculine or feminine
| *mōþēr f. "mother" | *hanþōr m. "singer" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *mōþēr | *mōþriz | *hanþōr | *hanþriz |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *mōþrį | *mōþrinz | *hanþrį | *hanþrinz |
| Genitive | *mōþriz | *mōþrǭ | *hanþriz | *hanþrǭ |
| Dative | *mōþrī | *mōþribiz | *hanþrī | *hanþribiz |
| Instrumental | *mōþri | *hanþri | ||
z-stems
| *amōz m. "love" | *þimfaz n. "time" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *amōz | *amaziz | *þimfaz | *þimfizō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *amazį | *amazinz | ||
| Genitive | *amaziz | *amazǭ | *þimfiziz | *þimfizǭ |
| Dative | *amazī | *amazibiz | *þimfizī | *þimbizibiz |
| Instrumental | *amazi | *þimfizi | ||
Consonant stems
| *feþs m. "foot" | *hafud n. "head" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *feþs | *fiþiz | *hafud | *hafudō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *fiþį | *fiþinz | ||
| Genitive | *fiþiz | *feþǭ | *hafudiz | *hafudǭ |
| Dative | *fiþī | *fiþibiz | *hafudī | *habuþibiz |
| Instrumental | *fiþi | *hafudi | ||
Note: The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular is *-s (which often leads to minor stem changes), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there is usually no suffix. However, there are many nouns that are irregular in these forms.
Adjectives
An adjective can be strong or weak. The class of an adjective is determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation is originally from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin enim) that was reanalyzed as an n-stem ending.
a/ō-stem adjectives
| *twenaz "good" | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Strong | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative/ Vocative |
*twenaz | *twenai | *twenō | *twenōi | *tweną, -at | *twenō |
| Accusative | *twenan | *twenanz | *twenǭ | *twenōnz | ||
| Genitive | *twenas | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą | *twenōz, *twenazjōz | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą | *twenas, *twenazjas | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą |
| Dative | *twenammai | *twenabiz | *twenōz | *twenōbiz | *twenammai | *twenabiz |
| Instrumental | *twenô | *twenô | *twenô | |||
| Weak | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative/ Vocative |
*twenô | *twininiz | *twenô | *twenōniz | *twenô | *twininō |
| Accusative | *twininį | *twinininz | *twenōnį | *twenōniz | ||
| Genitive | *twininiz | *twininǭ | *twenōniz | *twenōnǭ | *twininiz | *twininǭ |
| Dative | *twininī | *twinimbiz | *twenōnī | *twenōmbiz | *twininī | *twinimbiz |
| Instrumental | *twinini | *twenōni | *twinini | |||
ja/jō-stem adjectives
These are a sub-type of a/ō-stem adjectives with a -j- or -ij- (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and are declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected -iji- becomes -ī- and -ji- becomes -i-.
i-stem adjectives
These are declined identically to ja/jō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which take the endings *-iz and -į/it respectively instead of the expected **-(i)jaz and **-(i)ją/(i)jat. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular may take the ending *-in as an alternative to expected *-(i)jan.
Consonant-stem adjectives
These are declined identically to a/ō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which take the endings *-s and *- respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **-az and **-ą/at.
Pronouns
First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns
| First person | Second person | Reflexive | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Nominative | *ekō, *ikō | *nōs, *nōz | *þū | *wōs, *wōz | — |
| Accusative | *mē | *þē | *sē | ||
| Genitive | *mīz | *nasterą | *þīz | *wasterą | *sīz |
| Dative | *migī | *nōbiz | *þibī | *wōbiz | *sibī |
| Instrumental | *met, *mit | *þet, *þit | *set, *sit | ||
| Possessive adj. | *mijaz | *nasteraz | *þawaz | *wasteraz | *sawaz |
Notes:
- When two forms are given, the first is stressed and the second is unstressed.
- Possessive adjectives are always strong.
3rd person pronoun
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *iz | *ijai | *ijō | *ijōi | *it | *ijō |
| Accusative | *in | *ijanz | *ijǭ | *ijōnz | ||
| Genitive | *izjas | *izjōsą | *izjōz | *izjōsą | *izjas | *izjōsą |
| Dative | *immai | *izjaiz, izjabiz | *izjōz | *izjōiz, *izjōbiz | *immai | *izjaiz, izjabiz |
| Instrumental | *izjô | *izjô | *izjô | |||
Reflexive/Intensive pronoun
| Strong | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *safsaz | *safsai | *safsō | *safsōi | *safsą, *safsat | *safsō |
| Accusative | *safsan | *safsanz | *safsǭ | *safsōnz | ||
| Genitive | *safsas, *safsazjas | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą | *safsōz, *safsazjōz | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą | *safsas, *safsazjas | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą |
| Dative | *safsammai | *safsabiz | *safsōz | *safsōbiz | *safsammai | *safsabiz |
| Instrumental | *safsô | *safsô | *safsô | |||
| Weak | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *safsô | *safsiniz | *safsô | *safsōniz | *safsô | *safsinō |
| Accusative | *safsinį | *safsininz | *safsōnį | *safsōniz | ||
| Genitive | *safsiniz | *safsinǭ | *safsōniz | *safsōnǭ | *safsiniz | *safsinǭ |
| Dative | *safsinī | *safsimbiz | *safsōnī | *safsōmbiz | *safsinī | *safsimbiz |
| Instrumental | *safsini | *safsōni | *safsini | |||
Neutral demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *saz | *sai | *sō | *sōi | *sat | *sō |
| Accusative | *san | *sanz | *sǭ | *sōnz | ||
| Genitive | *sas, *sazjas | *sōsą, *sazjōsą | *sōz, *sazjōz | *sōsą, *sazjōsą | *sas, *sazjas | *sōsą, *sazjōsą |
| Dative | *sammai | *sabiz | *sōz | *sōbiz | *sammai | *sabiz |
| Instrumental | *sô | *sô | *sô | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *izaz | *izai | *izō | *izōi | *izat | *izō |
| Accusative | *izan | *izanz | *izǭ | *izōnz | ||
| Genitive | *izas, *izazjas | *izōsą, *izazjōsą | *izōz, *izazjōz | *izōsą, *izazjōsą | *izas, *izazjas | *izōsą, *izazjōsą |
| Dative | *izammai | *izabiz | *izōz | *izōbiz | *izammai | *izabiz |
| Instrumental | *izô | *izô | *izô | |||
Near demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *istaz | *istai | *istō | *istōi | *istat | *istō |
| Accusative | *istan | *istanz | *istǭ | *istōnz | ||
| Genitive | *istas, *istazjas | *istōsą, *istazjōsą | *istōz, *istazjōz | *istōsą, *istazjōsą | *istas, *istazjas | *istōsą, *istazjōsą |
| Dative | *istammai | *istabiz | *istōz | *istōbiz | *istammai | *istabiz |
| Instrumental | *istô | *istô | *istô | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *gehaz | *gehai | *gehō | *gehōi | *gehat | *gehō |
| Accusative | *gehan | *gehanz | *gehǭ | *gehōnz | ||
| Genitive | *gehas, *gegazjas | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą | *gehōz, *gegazjōz | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą | *gehas, *gegazjas | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą |
| Dative | *gegammai | *gehabiz | *gehōz | *gegōbiz | *gegammai | *gehabiz |
| Instrumental | *gehô | *gehô | *gehô | |||
Far demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *allaz | *allai | *allō | *allōi | *allat | *allō |
| Accusative | *allan | *allanz | *allǭ | *allōnz | ||
| Genitive | *allas, *allazjas | *allōsą, *allazjōsą | *allōz, *allazjōz | *allōsą, *allazjōsą | *allas, *allazjas | *allōsą, *allazjōsą |
| Dative | *allammai | *allabiz | *allōz | *allōbiz | *allammai | *allabiz |
| Instrumental | *allô | *allô | *allô | |||
Interrogative pronoun
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *hwai | *hwēz | *hwōi | *hwēz | *hwat | *hwō |
| Accusative | *hwan | *hwanz | *hwǭ | *hwōnz | ||
| Genitive | *hwas, *hwazjas | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą | *hwōz, *hwazjōz | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą | *hwas, *hwazjas | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą |
| Dative | *hwammai | *hwabiz | *hwōz | *hwōbiz | *hwammai | *hwabiz |
| Instrumental | *hwô, *hwî | *hwô, *hwî | *hwô, *hwî | |||
Numerals
| # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | Multiplier |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *ainaz | *frīsimaz | *semēlą | *simflaz, *singilaz |
| 2 | *twō | *alþeraz | *twis | *twiflaz |
| 3 | *þrēz | *þriþjô | *þris | *þriflaz |
| 4 | *hwettwōr | *hwetarþô | *hwetris | *hwetriflaz |
| 5 | *hwinhw | *hwinhtô | ||
| 6 | *sehs | *sehstô | ||
| 7 | *siftį | *siftimô | ||
| 8 | *ahtō | *ahtô | ||
| 9 | *nawį | *naunô | ||
| 10 | *tihį | *tigimô | ||
| 11 | *ainatigį | *ainatigimô | ||
| 12 | *twatigį | *twatigimô | ||
| 13 | *þritigį | *þritigimô | ||
| 14 | *hwettwōrtigį | *hwettwōrtigimô | ||
| 15 | *hwinhtigį | *hwinhtigimô | ||
| 16 | *sehstigį | *sehstigimô | ||
| 17 | *siftintigį | *siftintigimô | ||
| 18 | *ahtōtigį | *ahtōtigimô | ||
| 19 | *nawintigį | *nawintigimô | ||
| 20 | *wīginþī | *wīginsô | ||
| 30 | *þrīginþō | *þrīginsô | ||
| 40 | *hwatrōginþō | *hwatrōginsô | ||
| 50 | *hwinhwōginþō | *hwinhwōginsô | ||
| 60 | *sehsōginþō | *sehsōginsô | ||
| 70 | *seftumōginþō | *seftumōginsô | ||
| 80 | *ahtōginþō | *ahtōginsô | ||
| 90 | *naunōginþō | *naunōginsô | ||
| 100 | *hinþą | *hinsô | ||
| 1000 | *smīgislī | *smīgislidô |
Notes:
- *ainaz "one" is declined as an a/ō-stem adjective.
- *twō "two" is declined as below:
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *twō, *twai | *twōi | *twō |
| Accusative | *twanz | *twōnz | *twō |
| Genitive | *twōsą | ||
| Dative | *twōbaz | ||
| Instrumental | *twô | ||
- *þrēz "three" is declined similarly to a plural i-stem noun.
- Numbers from 4-99 are undeclined (except for two digit numbers above 20 that end in 1, 2, or 3).
- *hinþą "hundred" is declined as a neuter noun.
- *smīgislī "thousand" is declined as an ī/jō-stem feminine noun.
- Ordinal numbers are declined as either strong or weak adjectives (as per the endings in the table). Most are weak except for 1st and 2nd.
Verbs
Strong verbs
Strong verbs are characterized by a past stem different from the present stem that takes the following personal endings in the indicative:
| 1S | 2S | 3S | 1P | 2P | 3P |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -ai | -istai | -id | -amaz | -istiz | -ēri |
The past stem is also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel -i-.
Strong verbs can be put into classes depending on how the past stem is formed:
- Class 1: The past stem is formed with the vowel -ē- - e.g. *dahjō "I do" > *dēhai "I did".
- Class 2: The past stem is formed by adding -s- - e.g. *þragō "I drag" > *þrahsai "I dragged"
- Class 3: The past stem is formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by -e- - e.g. *hanō "I sing" > *heganai "I sang" (note: *hegan- is underlyingly *hehan-)
Verbs in all of these classes may or may not have a j-suffix in the present tense. Such verbs are said to be j-presents, and may be light or heavy. This affects the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it does in nouns and adjectives.
Class 1
Example (class 1): *akizi "to do, act"
| Infinitive | *akizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *akinþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *ahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *akjō | *akjōr | *akjǭ | *akjār | *ēkai | *ēkizǭ | |
| 2S | *akiz | *akizar | *akjāz | *akjāzar | *ēkistai | *ēkizēz | *ak |
| 3S | *akid | *akidar | *akjād | *akjādar | *ēkid | *ēkizēd | |
| 1P | *akjamaz | *akiminai | *akjāmaz | *akjāminai | *ēkamaz | *ēkizēmaz | |
| 2P | *akidiz | *akjādiz | *ēkistiz | *ēkizēþiz | *akid | ||
| 3P | *akjand | *akjānd | *akjēri | *akizēnd | |||
Example (class 1, light j-present): *dahizi "to do, make"
| Infinitive | *dahizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *daginþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *dahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *dahjō | *dahjōr | *dahjǭ | *dahjār | *dēhai | *dēhizǭ | |
| 2S | *dahiz | *dahizar | *dahjāz | *dagjāzar | *dēgistai | *dēhizēz | *dah |
| 3S | *dahid | *dahidar | *dahjād | *dagjādar | *dēhid | *dēhizēd | |
| 1P | *dahjamaz | *dagiminai | *dagjāmaz | *dagjāminai | *dēhamaz | *dēgizēmaz | |
| 2P | *dahidiz | *dagjādiz | *dēgistiz | *dēgizēþiz | *dahid | ||
| 3P | *dahjand | *dahjānd | *dagjēri | *dagizēnd | |||
Class 2
Example: *þragizi (class 2) "to sing"
| Infinitive | *þragizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *þraginþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *þrahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *þragō | *þragōr | *þragǭ | *þragār | *þrahsai | *þrahsizǭ | |
| 2S | *þragiz | *þragizar | *þragāz | *þragāzar | *þrahsistai | *þrahsizēz | *þrag |
| 3S | *þragid | *þragidar | *þragād | *þragādar | *þrahsid | *þrahsizēd | |
| 1P | *þragamaz | *þragiminai | *þragāmaz | *þragāminai | *þrahsamaz | *þrahsizēmaz | |
| 2P | *þragidiz | *þragādiz | *þrahsistiz | *þrahsizēþiz | *þragid | ||
| 3P | *þragand | *þragānd | *þrahsēri | *þrahsizēnd | |||
Class 3
Example: *hanizi (class 3) "to sing"
| Infinitive | *hanizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *haninþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *hanþaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *hanō | *hanōr | *hanǭ | *hanār | *heganai | *heganizǭ | |
| 2S | *haniz | *hanizar | *hanāz | *hanāzar | *heganistai | *heganizēz | *han |
| 3S | *hanid | *hanidar | *hanād | *hanādar | *heganid | *heganizēd | |
| 1P | *hanamaz | *haniminai | *hanāmaz | *hanāminai | *heganamaz | *heganizēmaz | |
| 2P | *hanidiz | *hanādiz | *heganistiz | *heganizēþiz | *hanid | ||
| 3P | *hanand | *hanānd | *heganēri | *heganizēnd | |||
Example (class 3, heavy j-present): *bargīzi "to stuff"
| Infinitive | *bargīzi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *bargīnþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *barhtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *barhijō | *barhijōr | *barhijǭ | *barhijār | *bebarhai | *bebargīsǭ | |
| 2S | *barhīz | *bargīzar | *barhijāz | *bargijāzar | *bebargīstai | *bebargīsēz | *barh |
| 3S | *barhīd | *bargīdar | *barhijād | *bargijādar | *bebarhīd | *bebargīsēd | |
| 1P | *bargijamaz | *bargīminai | *bargijāmaz | *bargijāminai | *bebarhamaz | *bebargīzēmaz | |
| 2P | *bargīþiz | *bargijādiz | *bebargīstiz | *bebargīzēþiz | *bargīþ | ||
| 3P | *barhijand | *barhijānd | *bargijēri | *bargīzēnd | |||
Weak verbs
Weak verbs do not change their stem, and they take the following endings in the past indicative: Strong verbs are characterized by a past stem different from the present stem that takes the following personal endings:
| 1S | 2S | 3S | 1P | 2P | 3P |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -bǭ | -bōz | -bōd | -bōmaz | -bōþiz | -bōnd |
The -b- is usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depends on the weak verb class.
The past subjunctive endings are also added to the present stem. A connector vowel is also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes: