Aryan

Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh₀, pronounced /əi̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.

Aryan
*airáh0
Pronunciation	[əi̯ˈrəʔ]
Created by	Veno
Date	12000-10000 BP
Setting	Caucasus Mountains
Native speakers	- (2024)
Language family	Pangaean Code Aryan
Early form	Transitional Dialect
Writing system	Latin

History

Development from Paleolithic Codes

The history of Aryan taken into account starts with a transition from Atomism to Double Articulation by the dialects of the Low Paleolithic, mostly regarding the Pangaean Code as its ultimate source, next to the influence of the Diluvian and Hyperborean Codes. Although the actor responsible for this transition is a matter of debate even within the experiment, the loss of archaic features is assumed to coincide with the End of the Last Ice Age. At that time (roughly 12000 years Before Present), the loss of strict adherence to the primordial grammar might have allowed sound changes to take place, as seen below.

• Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.
  

Weak Voiceless Stop before laryngeal	Weak Voiced Stop before laryngeal	Strong Voiceless Stop before laryngeal	Strong Voiced Stop before laryngeal
/kH/→/kh/	/ƙH/→/k/	/gH/→/gɦ/	/ɠH/→/g/
/pH/→/ph/	/ƥH/→/p/	/bH/→/bɦ/	/ɓH/→/b/
/tH/→/th/	/ƭH/→/t/	/dH/→/dɦ/	/ɗH/→/d/

• The production of aspirated/murmured series contaminates the regular sounds, whose qualities of WEAK and STRONG are rearranged to accomodate Aspiration/Breathy Voice instead of Ejection/Implosion.
  

Weak Voiceless Stop	Weak Voiced Stop	Strong Voiceless Stop	Strong Voiced Stop
/k/→/k/	/g/→/g/	/ƙ/→/kh/	/ɠ/→/gɦ/
/p/→/p/	/b/→/b/	/ƥ/→/ph/	/ɓ/→/bɦ/
/t/→/t/	/d/→/d/	/ƭ/→/th/	/ɗ/→/dɦ/

• Relative articulated sounds when stops transform into Diluvian consonant clusters following former examples of aspiration/breathy voice.
  

Retracted before Laryngeal	Retracted	Advanced before Laryngeal	Advanced
/k̠H/→/khph/	/k̠/→/kp/	/k̟H/→/khth/	/k̟/→/kt/
/p̠H/→/phth/	/p̠/→/pt/	/p̟H/→/phkh/	/p̟/→/pk/
/t̠H/→/thkh/	/t̠/→/tk/	/t̟H/→/thph/	/t̟/→/tp/
/g̠H/→/gɦbɦ/	/g̠/→/gb/	/g̟H/→/gɦdɦ/	/g̟/→/gd/
/b̠H/→/bɦdɦ/	/b̠/→/bd/	/b̟H/→/bɦgɦ/	/b̟/→/bg/
/d̠H/→/dɦgɦ/	/d̠/→/dg/	/d̟H/→/dɦbɦ/	/d̟/→/db/
/ƙ̠H/→/kp/	/ƙ̠/→/khph/	/ƙ̟H/→/kt/	/ƙ̟/→/khth/
/ƥ̠H/→/pt/	/ƥ̠/→/phth/	/ƥ̟H/→/pk/	/ƥ̟/→/phkh/
/ƭ̠H/→/tk/	/ƭ̠/→/thkh/	/ƭ̟H/→/tp/	/ƭ̟/→/thph/
/ɠ̠H/→/gb/	/ɠ̠/→/gɦbɦ/	/ɠ̟H/→/gd/	/ɠ̟/→/gɦdɦ/
/ɓ̠H/→/bd/	/ɓ̠/→/bɦdɦ/	/ɓ̟H/→/bg/	/ɓ̟/→/bɦgɦ/
/ɗ̠H/→/dg/	/ɗ̠/→/dɦgɦ/	/ɗ̟H/→/db/	/ɗ̟/→/dɦbɦ/

• Sonorants, contrary to the stop series, remain conserved when onset.
  

Voiceless Sonorant(I)	Voiced Sonorant(I)	Voiceless Sonorant(II)	Voiced Sonorant(II)
/j̥/→/j̥/	/j/→/j/	/w̥/→/w̥/	/w/→/w/
/n̥/→/n̥/	/n/→/n/	/m̥/→/m̥/	/m/→/m/
/l̥/→/l̥/	/l/→/l/	/r̥/→/r̥/	/r/→/r/

• Within the turbulents, clicks are exchanged by ...; laryngeals ...

p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰūymás ( *pʰtʰūh1-más) > fumus heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks.

*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation]

dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di

*h2odʲ-, *h2ódʲam "hatred"
*akt- > *ak- "sharp"
*dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill"

sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás)

	Aryan
p	*phth / *ph / *phkh; *phkʷh
t	*thkh; *thkʷh / *th / *thph
k	*khph / *kh; *kʷ / *khth
b	*bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ
d	*dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db
g	*gb / *g, *gʷ / gd
pʼ	*pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
tʼ	*tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
kʼ	kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
ɓ	*bhdh / *bh / *bhgh; *bhgʷh
ɗ	*dhgh; *dhgʷh / *dh / *dhbh
ɠ	*ghbh / *gh; *gʷh / *ghdh

Development into Indo-Anatolian Languages

[...]
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).

• /ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
• /ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
• /əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (*gain- >*g∅n-tás > *gnaitás > *gnātós, as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
• /ai̯/ > */ai̯/
• kʰpʰ-
• kp- > *kʷʰ-

• pʰrás

laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa

• mai > *meh1

	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lithuanian	Albanian	Armenian	Hittite	Tocharian	Greek	Latin	Goidelic	Gothic
>*p	p; pʰ	p; f	p	p	p	h; w	p; pp	p	p / pt	p	∅	f; β
>*t				x x
>*k		x x
>*ḱ		x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]

thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...

Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants

PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic		Germanic
	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.				Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English
									normal	C+[j]		normal	-C-
*p	p; ph [pʰ]	p; f	p			h; w	p, pp	p		pt	p	∅		f; b [β]	f; v, f
*t	t; th [t̪ʰ]	t; θ	t			tʿ [tʰ]	t, tt; z [ts]	t; c [c]	t	s; tt/ss	t	t	th [θ]	þ [θ]; d [ð];	th; d;
*ḱ	ś [ɕ]	s		š [ʃ]	th [θ]; k	s	k, kk	k; ś [ɕ]	k		c [k]	c [k]	ch [x]	h; g [ɣ]	h; ∅; y
*k	k; c [t͡ɕ]; kh [kʰ]	k; c [tʃ]; x	k; č [tʃ]; c [ts]	k	k; q [c]	kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ					k; s; q [c]		ku, kku		p; t; k		qu [kʷ]; c [k]			ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w	wh; w
*b	b; bh	b; β	b			p			b	pt	b	b [b]	-[β]-	p
*d	d; dh	d; δ	d		d; dh [ð]	t		ts; ś [ɕ]	d	z [zd] > [z]	d	d [d]	-[ð]-	t
*ǵ	j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; g	c [ts]	k	k; ś [ɕ]	g		g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	k	c / k; ch
*g	g; j [d͡ʑ]; gh; h [ɦ]	g; j [dʒ]; γ	g; ž [ʒ]; dz	g	g	k
*gʷ					g; z; gj [ɟ]		ku		b; d; g		u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ]	b [b]	-[β]-	q [kʷ]	qu
*pʰ	bh [bʱ]	b; β	b			b; w	p		ph [pʰ]	pt	f; b			b [b]; b [β]; f	b; v / f
*tʰ	dh [dʱ]	d; δ	d				t	t; c [c]	th [tʰ]	tt/ss	f; d; b	d [d]	-[ð]-	d; d [ð]; þ	d
*ǵʰ	h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; d	j [dz]; z	k	k; ś [ɕ]	kh [kʰ]		h; h / g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	g; g [ɣ]; g [x]	g; y / w
*gʰ	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ]	g; j [dʒ]; γ	g; ž [ʒ]; dz	g	g	g; ǰ [dʒ]
*gʷʰ					g; z; gj [ɟ]		ku		ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; kh [kʰ]		f; g / u [w]; gu [ɡʷ]			g; b; w; gw	g; b; w
*s	s	h [h, x]	s		sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ]; h	h; ∅	š [s]	s; ṣ [ʂ]	h; s;/ ∅; [¯]	i	s; r	s ʃ	-[h]-	s; z	s; r
	ṣ [ʂ]	š [ʃ]	x [x]	š [ʃ]
*m	m									in	m	m [m]	-[w̃]-	m
*-m	m		˛ [˜]	n		∅	n	n		--	m [˜]	n		∅
*n	n		n; ˛ [˜]	n				n; ñ [ɲ]	n	in	n
*l	r (dial. l)	r	l		l; ll [ɫ]	l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ]	l			il	l
*r	r/l	r			r [ɾ]; rr [r]	r				ir	r
*y	y [j]		j [j]		gj [ɟ]; ∅	∅	y [j]		z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅	?i	i [j]; ∅	∅		j	y
*w	v [ʋ]	v [w]	v	v [ʋ]	v	g / w	w		w > h / ∅	i	u [w > v]	f	-∅-	w
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English

Notes for table 1:

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters

PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic	Germanic
	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.				Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English
									normal	C+[j]
*sr	sr	r	str	sr	rr [r]	(a)r	š(ša)r ʃʃr		rh	n/a	fr-, -br-	sr	str	str
*tw	tv	θβ	tv	tv	t	kʿ [kʰ]	ttu, ddu		s-, -ss-	n/a	p?	t	þw	thw
*dʰw	dhv	ðβ	dv	dv	d	?	tu, du				f	d	dw	dw
*dw	dv					(e)rk	tu, du				b		tw	tw
*tl			sl	kl, sl					tl		kl	tl
*dl	ll
*dn	nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw	śv	sp	sv	šv	s	sk, š				n/a	qu [kʷ]	cu [kʷ]	Template:Transl [xʷ]	wh
*ǵʰw	hv		zv	žv	z
*ǵw	jv												q [kʷ]	qu [kw]
*sw	sv	xuu [xʷ]	sv	sv	v, d	kʿ [kʰ]	normal dev.		h	n/a	su [sw]	s	sw	sw
*sp	sp	sp	sp		f	sp / pʿ [pʰ]	normal dev.		sp	?	sp	f	sp
*sbʰ		spʰ
*sd	d; ḷ > ḍ, ḍḍ	zd	zd	zd		st					d	-t- [d]	st	st
*sdʰ	dh; ḷh > ḍh, ḍḍh	zd	zd	zd					sth			-t- [d]	zd	d
*st	st; ṣṭ	st	st		sht [ʃt]	st	normal dev.		st	s; tt/ss	st		st
*sḱ	ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch	s?	sk	š?	h	?? č`; c`	normal dev.		sk; kh [kʰ]; skh [skʰ]		sc [sk]	sc [sk]	sk	sh [ʃ]
*sk	sk, {śc, ch}	sk, sč	normal dev.		?	sk	normal dev.
*skʷ									norm.		squ [skʷ]		sq
*t+t [tst]	tt; tth	st; sθ?	st		s	s?	zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst]	ss?	st		ss		ss / st
*sǵ	jj
*sgʰ	jj
*dt	tt	st						st	st		s		ss	ss [s]
*ddʰ	ddʰ	zd									d	t
*dʰt	ddʰ	zd, st		st					st
*pt	pt	ft	t?	pt	t				pt		pt	cht [xt]	ft
*ḱt	ṣṭ [ʂʈ]	št [ʃt]	st	št [ʃt]					kt		ct [kt]		ht	ght [t]
*kt	kt	xt	t?	kt
*kʷt									pt		ct [kt]
*ps	ps								ps		ps	s, ss	fs	ps
*ts	ts
*ḱs	kṣ	š			sh [ʃ]				ks		x [ks]		hs	x [ks]
*ks	kṣ	xš						(ks)
*kʷs							kʷs		ps		x [ks]
*gs	kṣ
*gʷs	kṣ
*ǵʰs	kṣ	ž								ks
*gʰs	kṣ
*gʷʰs	kṣ								ps
*tḱ	kṣ	š			k				kt		s
*tk	kṣ	xš							kt
*dʰǵʰ	kṣ	z		ž			tk	tk/k	khth
*dʰgʰ	kṣ						tk
*dʰgʷʰ	kṣ	γž					kts		phth		s
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English

-->

Orthography

Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin	Proto-Celtic	Gothic	Old English
														normal	umlauted
*e	*e, *h₁e	a		e			je, ie, e, i; ja	ä	e, ʔe, i	e			i; aí [ɛ]	e; eo	i; ie
*a	(*a), *h₂e			o	a	a	ha, a	ā	ha, a	a			a	æ; a; ea	e; ie
*o	*h₃e					o, a	a	a, e	a	o
	*o	a; ā
*ə	*h₁	i	i, ∅	∅		a, ∅		ā	∅	e	a		a, ∅
	*h₂								ḫ	a
	*h₃								∅	o
*-	*h₁-	∅				e (a?)	∅		a, ∅	e (o)	∅
	*h₂-					a			ḫa	a
	*h₃-								a, ha	o
*ē	*ē, *eh₁	ā		ě	ė	i	o, ua	a/e?; ā?	ē, e, i	ē		ī	ē	ǣ
*ā	(*ā), *eh₂			a	o [oː]	a		a/o?	a, ah	ā > ē	ā	ā	ō		ē
*ō	*ō, *eh₃				uo	u	e	a/ā?; ū?	a, ā	ō		ā; ū
*i	*i	i		ь	i	i	i; e	ä	i, ī	i			i; aí [ɛ]	i
*ī	*ih₁	ī		i	y [iː]		i	i		ī	ī		ei [iː]	ī
	*ih₂					i or (j)a?		yā		ī or (j)ā?
	*ih₃									ī or (j)ō?
*ei	*ei, *h₁ei	ai > ē	ai > ōi, āi > aē		ei; ie	i		e	ē	ei	ī	ē
*oi	*oi, *h₃ei			ě	ai; ie	e	e, ai		ē, ai	oi	ū	oi	ái	ā	ǣ
*ai	(*ai), *h₂ei									ai	ae	ai
*ēi	*ēi	āi > ai; ā	āi; ā(i)	i			i		ē	ēi	ī?		ei [iː]	ī
*ōi	*ōi (*oei)			y; u	ai; ui		e, ai		ai	ōi	ō	u	ái	ā	ǣ
*āi	*eh₂ei			ě					ai	āi > ēi	ae
*u	*u	u		ъ	u	u	u; y	ä	u	u	u	u; o	u; aú [ɔ]	u; o	y
*ū	*uh₁	ū		y	ū		y; i	u		ū	ū				ȳ
	*uh₂					u or (w)a?		wā		ū or (w)ā?
	*uh₃									ū or (w)ō?
*eu	*eu, *h₁eu	au > ō	ə̄u; ao	ju	iau	oy	e	u		eu	ū	ou	iu	ēo	īe
*ou	*ou,*h₃eu			u	au		a	o, au		ou			áu	ēa
*au	(*au), *h₂eu					aw				au	au
*ēu	*ēu	āu > au	āu	u	iau		e				ū?		iu	ēo
*ōu	*ōu						a		au	ō			áu	ēa
*m̥	*m̥	a		ę	im̃; um̃	am	a	äm	a, un	a	em	em, am	um	um	ym
*m̥̅	*mh₁	ā			ìm; ùm	ama		mā		mē	mā
	*mh₂									mā > mē
	*mh₃									mō
*m̥m	*m̥m	am		ьm/ъm	im; um	am				am	em	am
*n̥	*n̥	a		ę	iñ; uñ	an		än	an	a	en	en, an	un	un	yn
*n̥̄	*nh₁	ā			ìn; ùn	ana		nā		nē	nā
	*nh₂									nā > nē
	*nh₃									nō
*n̥n	*n̥n	an		ьn/ъn	iñ; uñ	an				an	en	an
*l̥	*l̥	r̥	ərə	lь/lъ	il̃; ul̃	al	il, li; ul, lu	äl	al	la	ol	li; al	ul	ul; ol	yl
*l̥̄	*lh₁	īr; ūr	arə		ìl; ùl	ala	al	lā		lē	lā
	*lh₂									lā > lē
	*lh₃									lō
*l̥l	*l̥l	ir; ur	ar	ьl/ъl	il; ul	al, la				al	el	al
*r̥	*r̥	r̥	ərə	rь/rъ	ir̃; ur̃	ar	ir, ri; ur, ru	är	ar, ur	ra	or	ri; ar	aúr [ɔr]	ur; or	yr
*r̥̄	*rh₁	īr; ūr	arə		ìr; ùr	ara	ra	rā		rē	rā
	*rh₂									rā > rē
	*rh₃									rō
*r̥r	*r̥r	ir; ur	ar	ьr/ъr	ir; ur	ar				ar	ar	ar
Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin	Proto-Celtic	Gothic	normal	umlauted
														Old English

Intersegmentals

Consonants

Aryan is reconstructed as having 36 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained inventory of the Pangaean Code in some form.

		Labial	Alveolar			Palatal	Velar	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal	Voiceless	*m̥	*n̥
	Voiced	*m	*n
Plosive	Voiceless	*p	*t				*k		*ʔ
	Voiced	*b	*d	*dʲ	*dʷ		*g
	Aspirated-	*ph	*th				*kh
	Aspirated+	*bh	*dh				*gh
Fricative	Voiceless		*s				*x	*ħ	*h
	Voiced		*z				*ɣ	*ʕ	*ɦ
Vibrant	Voiceless		*r̥
	Voiced		*r
Lateral	Voiceless		*l̥	*tɬ
	Voiced		*l
Approximant	Voiceless					*j̊	*ẘ
	Voiced					*j	*w

Morphology

Affixes

• gʷaináh0
• gʷaināsyas
• gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas

Lessons

Lesson 1

German:

dieser Mensch
dies-er	Mensch
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person
"this"	"person"
this person

Russian:

этот человек
эт-от	человек
DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

Latin:

iste homo
iste	homo
DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE	person.NOMINATIVE
"that"	"person"
that person

Greek:

οὗτος ἄνθρωπος
οὗτ-ος	ἄνθρωπ-ος
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

Aryan:

*aestad dʰgʰūmás
*aes-tad	*dʰgʰūmás
MASCULINE.3PERSON-DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	soil(adjective).SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <

• h0e * eah0 *as *ats
  • pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
  • pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ

aes, eah₀, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad

Lesson 2

German:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-er -∅,-e	-e, -ie, -∅	-es, -as, -∅, -e	-e, -ie, -en, -er
Genitive	-es, -en	-er, -en	-es, -en	-er, -en
Dative	-em, -en, -e	-er, -en	-em, -en	-en
Accusative	-en	-e, -ie	-es, -as, -e	-e, -ie, -en

^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles; ^5 Declension of regular feminine nouns; ^6 Declension of regular masculine nouns; ^7 Declension of regular neuter nouns.

Russian:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-от, -ый, -ин, -∅/-ь	-а/-я, -ая, -ина, -ь	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е, -мя	-и/ы, -ые, -ины, -а/-я, -и/-мена
Genitive	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -и	-ой, -иной, -и/ы	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -мени	-их, -ых, -иных, -∅/-ь, -ов/-ей, ∅-/-(е)й, -ей/-мён(-мян)
Dative	-ому, -иному, -у/-ю, -и	-ой, -иной, -е, -и	-ому, -иному, -у/-ю, -мени	-им, -ым, -иным, -ам/-ям, -ям/-менам
Accusative.A	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -ь	-ту, -ую, -ину, -у, -ь	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е, -мя	-их, -ых, -иных, -∅/ь, -ов/-ей, -а/-я, -и/-мена
Accusative.I	-от, -ый, -ин, -∅/-ь	-ту, -ую, -ину, -у	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е	-и/-ы, -ые, -ины, -∅/-ь, ∅-/-(е)й, -ь/-мена
Instrumental	-им, -ым, -иным, -ом/-ем, -ью	-ой/-ою//-ей, -иной/-иною, -ю, -ью	-им, -ым, -иным, -ом/-ем, -менем	-ими, -ыми, -иными, -ами/-ями, -ями(ьми)/-менами
Prepositional	-ом, -ином, -е, -и	-ой, -иной, -е, -и	-ом, -ином, -е, -мени	-их, -ых, -иных, -ах/-ях, -ях/-менах

^1 Declension of correlatives; ^2 Declension of non-possessive adjectives; ^3 Declension of possessive adjectives; ^4 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^5 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^6 Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; ^7 Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; ^8 Declension of neuter nouns; ^9 Declension of nouns ending in hard consonant and no vowel.

	LATIN DECLENSION
	Singular			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-e/-us, -us, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-a, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ud, -um, -e, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ī, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ae, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a, -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Genitive	-īus, -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus, -ae, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus, -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-ōrum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ārum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ōrum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum
Dative	-ī, -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī, -ae, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī, -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Accusative	-um, -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-am, -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ud, -um, -e, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ōs, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ās, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a, -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Ablative	-ō, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ā, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ō, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Vocative	-e, -is	-a, -is	-ud, -um, -e	-ī, -ēs	-ae, -ēs,	-a, -ia

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	GREEK DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-ος, -ας/-ης, -(ε)ς, -ων	-η/α, -(ε)ς, -ων	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες	-α
Genitive	-ου, -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ης/-ας, -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ου	-οιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν, -ονοιν	-ων, -ονων	-ων, -ονων	-ων
Dative	-ῳ, -ι, -ονι	-ῃ, -ι, -ονι	-ῳ	-οιν, -ονοιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν	-οις, -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις, -οσι	-οις
Accusative	-ον, -α, -ονα	-ην, -ονα	-ον	-ω	-α	-ω	-ους, -ονας	-ας, -ονας	-α
Vocative	-ε, -(ε)ς, -ον	-η, -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες, -ονες	-α

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	ARYAN DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	*-as	*-ah0	*-am	*-ā	*-āh0	*-ā	*-ayn	*-ah0in	*-a
Genitive	*-asyas	*-āsyas	-ου	-οιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν, -ονοιν	-ων, -ονων	-ων, -ονων	-ων
Dative	-ῳ, -ι, -ονι	-ῃ, -ι, -ονι	-ῳ	-οιν, -ονοιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν	-οις, -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις, -οσι	-οις
Accusative	-ον, -α, -ονα	-ην, -ονα	-ον	-ω	-α	-ω	-ους, -ονας	-ας, -ονας	-α
Vocative	-ε, -(ε)ς, -ον	-η, -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες, -ονες	-α

diese schöne Kone эта красивая жена ista pulchra uxor

• eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0

Lesson 3

*gaínōm, *gígnmi "I generate" *pūhāṓm, *píbmi "I drink" *wehdḗyōm, *wḗydmi "I see"

• gánas > γόνος "offspring"

Initial clusters in the Nominative will give way to /ə/

• ptā́r (A)> *patḗr (PIE)
  
• páh5man > *póh5mn̥ > πῶμα "slid"
  

[*peh5] "feed, protect"

*pʰair- "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < *pʰaírōm, *pʰíprmi) > *pʰaíras [bare noun], *pʰ∅rás "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), *pʰáras [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")

*daim- "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < *daímōm, *dídmmi) > *daímas [bare noun], *d∅más "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), *dámas "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")

*paid- "stepping" [n/v] (*paídōm, *pípdmi) > *paídas [bare noun], *p∅dás "foot" [adjective-noun] (Latin pes, Greek πούς "foot"), *pádas "step" [result-noun]

*kpain- "killing" [n/v] (Proto-Indo-European *kʷʰen, Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > *kpaínas [bare noun], *kp∅nás "murderer" [adjective-noun], *kpánas "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")

*h₁ed- "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < *h₁édōm, *yédmi) > *h₁édas [bare noun], *yedás "eater" [adjective-noun], *h₁ádas [result-noun]

In Aryan, personal enclitics are positioned after the first word of a proposition (Wackernagel's Law)

the verb either starts or ends the clause... tendence to follow SOV

• the finite verb loses accent in an independent clause, except when in first position (always has accent in dependent clause)
• absolute construction
• subject is ommitted

• na pʰaírīt mai
• pʰaírīt mai na?

h₅ígōm, mayás, mai

_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb)

The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276.

Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974)

morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger

-ōm/mi -āṓm/-mā

• pʰaír-

-ōm / *-mi (perfective)

• -āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)

í (animated nouns) ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent Aryan has a complex system of accent loss

As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)

• paid- ... *p∅dás

• p∅dás > páds > póds

• p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
• p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός

Syntax

Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte Я думал я один кто об этом подумал...

References

• Behaghel, Otto (1932), Deutsche Syntax
• Benveniste, Émile (1935), Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen
• Collinge, N. E. (1985), The Laws of Indo-European
• Jespersen , Otto (1924), The Philosophy Of Grammar
• Priscianus (6th Century), Institutiones Grammaticae
• Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), Die Lehre von der Lautbildung
• Szemerényi, Oswald (1970), Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft
• Sommerstein, Alan (1973), Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek
• Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa
• Wackernagel, Jakob (1892), Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung