Qino

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Qino (native: Qino afka /ɠino afka/, traditional Arabic script: ڧں أڢک, modernized Arabic script: قن أفك, Ge'ez script: ቅኖ አፍከ) is a Cushitic conlang.

Introduction

Qino is a Cushitic language. The phonology is largely inspired by Hadda. The syntax and verbal morphology are most similar to Saho-Afar.

Phonology

Orthography

Qino can be written in the Arabic, Latin, or Ge'ez scripts. In this article, the Latin script (with stress indicated) is used for ease of reading.

Consonants

Traditional Arabic "Modernized" Arabic Latin Ge'ez IPA Notes
ـأ أ أ ' ʔ Here hamzah is shown on alif, but it may occur on waw (ؤ), ya' (ئ), or without a "chair" (ء).
ببب ب ب b b Lenited to [β ~ β̞] between vowels. May be indicated in traditional Arabic script as ۋ.
پپپ پ ڀ bh ɓ Lenited to [β̞ˀ] between vowels.
تتت ت ت t t
ثثث ث ث th θ Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /t/.
ججج ج ج j d͡ʒ Lenited to [ʝ ~ j] between vowels (may be indicated orthographically as ی/y).
ڃڃڃ ڃ ݧ ny ɲ
چچچ چ ڇ jh ʄ Lenited to [jˀ] between vowels.
ححح ح ح x ħ
خخخ خ خ kh x ~ χ Occurs in loanwords.
ـد د د d d Lenited to [ð ~ ð̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as ذ).
ـذ ذ ذ dz ð Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /d/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d/.
ـر ر ر r r Becomes a tap (/ɾ/) between vowels.
ـز ز ز z z Occurs in loanwords.
سسس س س s s
ششش ش ش sh ʃ
صصص ص ص s s Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /sˁ/.
ضضض ض ض lh In Arabic loanwords, may be pronounced as in Fusha (/dˁ/ or /d͡lˁ/ or whatever) or the "hybrid" pronunciations /ɗ͡l(ˁ)/ or /lˁ/.
ططط ط ط dh ɗ Lenited to [ɾˀ] between vowels, which may be indicated orthographically as ڟ/rh. In loanwords, may be pronounced /t̪ˁ/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ɗ̪(ˁ)/.
ظظظ ظ ظ dz ð Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /ðˁ/. Nativized as /d/ or /ɗ/.
ڟڟڟ ڟ ڟ rh ɾˀ Allophone of /ɗ/ between vowels. May not be distinguished from ط/dh.
ععع ع ع c ʕ
غغغ غ غ gh ɣ ~ ʁ Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /ɡ/ or /ɠ/. May be used for the intervocalic allophone of /ɡ/.
ڢڢڡ ڡ ف f f
ڥڥڥ ڥ پ p p Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /b/ or /f/.
ڧڧٯ ٯ ق q ɠ Lenited to [ɰˀ] between vowels. In loanwords, may be pronounced /q/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ʛ/.
ققق ق ڹ ng ŋ
ڨڨڨ ڨ ڠ g ɡ Lenited to [ɣ ~ ɣ̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as غ).
ککک ک ك k k
ݣݣݣ ݣ چ ch t͡ʃ
للل ل ل l l
ممم م م m m
ننں ں ن n n
ـو و و w w
ـۋ ۋ ڤ v v Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /f/, /b/, or /w/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /b/.
ههه ه ه h h
ییی\ـے ی\ے ي y j In the traditional Arabic script, written as ے when representing a final /i(ː)/ or vowelless /-j/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d͡ʒ/.


Vowels

Traditional Arabic "Modernized" Arabic Latin Ge'ez IPA Notes
ـَ ـَ a a
ـٜ ـٖ e e
ـِ ـِ i ኢ፣እ i
ـٗ ـٗ o o
ـُ ـُ u u
ـَا ـَا aa
ـٜیٰ، ـَےْ ـٖي٬ ـَيْ ee
ـِے ـِي ii
ـٗو٬ ـَوْ ـٗو، ـَوْ oo
ـُو ـُو uu
ـْ ـْ C C Used for a consonant not followed by a vowel.
ـّ ـّ CC - Used for a geminate consonant.
ـهْ ـهْ -V́ (or -Vh) (ህ) -V́ Used for a stressed word-final vowel.

Consonants

Qino consonant phonemes
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal/
Postalveolar
Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
Nasal plain m n ny /ɲ/ ng /ŋ/
glottalized [mˀ] [nˀ] [ɲˀ] [ŋˀ]
Stop consonant voiceless (p) t ch /t͡ʃ/ k ' /ʔ/
voiced b d j /d͡ʒ/ ɡ
glottalized bh /ɓ/ dh /ɗ/ jh /ʄ/ q /ɠ/
Fricative voiceless f (th /θ/) s sh /ʃ/ (kh /x ~ χ/) x /ħ/ h
voiced (v), [β ~ β̞] (dz /ð/), [ð ~ ð̞] (z) [ʝ ~ j] (gh /ɣ ~ ʁ/), [ɣ ~ ɣ̞] c /ʕ/
Approximant plain w l y /j/
glottalized [β̞ˀ] lh /lˀ/ [jˀ] [ɰˀ]
Trill/Tap plain r
glottalized rh [ɾˀ]

Notes:

1 ch, ny, and ng are geminated between vowels.

2 Phonemes in brackets are only found in loanwords.

3 The implosives are heavily glottalized and may more accurately be represented [dˀ].

4 The glottalized phonemes [mˀ, nˀ, ɲˀ, ŋˀ] and [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ] are not considered separate phonemes but rather allophones of glottalized stops before/after nasals and between vowels respectively. Only rh [ɾˀ] is (optionally) distinguished orthographically.

Vowels

a e i o u aa ee ii oo uu

Prosody

Intonation

Qino does not have distinctive tone, but stressed vowels are pronounced with a higher pitch. A question is indicated with a falling intonation.

Stress

By default, primary stress falls on the last "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel). If there are no long syllables, the initial syllable is stressed. Words that do not conform to this rule are indicated in this article with an acute accent. The exception is nouns that end in a consonant in the absolutive, which act as if they ended in a vowel. A word may contain multiple stressed syllables, in which case primary stress falls on the final stressed syllable.

Phonotactics

  • Syllable structure is (C)V(C)
  • Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Epithetic consonants such as w and y are inserted.
  • When a cluster of three consonants would occur, the epithetic vowel -i- is inserted. Alternatively, the consonant cluster can be separated with an "echo" vowel, sometimes with metathesis.
e.g. hurdá "he sleeps", hurditá / huruddá / hudurtá "she sleeps"

Morphophonology

Sandhi and Allophony

  • Between vowels:
    • /b, d, d͡ʒ, ɡ/ → [β ~ β̞, ð ~ ð̞, ʝ ~ j, ɣ ~ ɣ̞]
    • /ɓ, ɗ, ʄ, ɠ/ → [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ]
  • mbh, ndh, njh, nq → [mːˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋːˀ]
  • -n- of 1st person plural:
    • bh, dh, lh, jh, q + n → [mnˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋnˀ] (written bhn, dhn, etc)
    • r, l, lh + n → [rː, lː, lːˀ] (written rr, ll, llh)
    • b, d, j, g + nmn, nn, jn [ɲː], gn [ŋn]
    • sh + nny [ɲː]
  • -t- of 2nd person and 3rd person feminine, singulative:
    • bh, dh, lh, jh, q: t becomes dh (lh, dh + dh are written ldh, ddh)
    • b, d, g: t becomes d
    • j + tjj
    • sh + tch /t͡ʃː/

Morphology

Nouns

Case

Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case. Case markers (which can be analyzed as postpositions) go at the end of a nominal phrase. Verbs (including infinitives) are nominalized with the suffix -n before adding any case suffixes (these nominalized verbs are feminine). Subordinate verbs can alternatively be preceded by the particle in "that (relativizer)".

  • Primary cases:
    • Absolutive: Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of most adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects.
    • Nominative: Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:
      • Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, -a: -u - e.g. nama "person" → namu
      • Feminine/plural with absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -i - e.g. nafa "soul" → nafi
      • Absolutive ending in other short, unstressed vowel: unchanged - e.g. shimmirti "bird (sing.)" → shimmirti
      • Absolutive ending in a long or stressed vowel: -n - e.g. Faadhumá "Fatima" → Faadhuman
    • Genitive: Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: -í - e.g. namanamí
      • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -t - e.g. FaadhumáFaadhumat
  • Secondary cases:
    • Dative: Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for").
      • Absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -óo - e.g. namanamoo
      • Absolutive ending in other short unstressed vowel: lengthen final vowel + final stress - e.g. shimmirtishimmirtii
      • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -s - e.g. FaadhumáFaadhumas
      • Independent form: oo
    • Ablative: Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than"), "in regards to".
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ák - e.g. MaxammadMaxammadak
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́k - e.g. namanamak
      • Independent form: ak
    • Instrumental: Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ás - e.g. MaxammadMaxammadas
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́s - e.g. namanamas
      • Independent form: as
    • Comitative: Used for accompaniment ("in company with").
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ál - e.g. MaxammadMaxammadal
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́l - e.g. namanamal
      • Independent form: al
    • Locative: Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ád - e.g. MaxammadMaxammadad
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́d - e.g. namanamad
      • Independent form: ad
  • Pseudo-cases:
    • Predicative: Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional and in the present indicative, the copula can be dropped entirely.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: -e (declines as adjective), -dha (invariant; present only) - e.g. MaxammadMaxammade, Maxámmaddha
      • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -dhe (declines as adjective), -dha (invariant; present only) - e.g. FaadhumáFaadhumárhe, Faadhumárha
      • Independent forms of the copula: dha (invariant; present only), e (adjective declension), dhe (= dha + e; adjective declension)
e.g. Maxammadu nama / nama e / nama dha / nama dhe / name / namarha. "Muhammad is a person."

Number

The citation form is unmarked for number. The singulative is formed with suffixes such as -sha, -ha, -ka, -icha, -ta, -eesha, -ocha, (masculine) or -ti, -itti, -eeti, -otti (feminine). The plural is formed with suffixes such as -oota, -ani, -aani, -eeni, -ooni, -eeCi, -ooCi, -eeya, -ooya, etc.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Qino independent personal pronouns
Absolutive Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative Ablative Instrumental Comitative Locative
1S ana anu kiisha kiishí kiishoo kiishak kiishas kiishal kiishad
2SM ata atu kaaha kaahí kaahoo kaahak kaahas kaahal kaahad
2SF ati ati taati taatí taatii taatík taatís taatíl taatíd
3SM usa usu keesha keeshí keeshoo keeshak keeshas keeshal keeshad
3SF ishi ishi teeti teetí teetii teetik teetis teetil teetid
1Ex una unu keena keení keennoo keenak keenas keenal keenad
1Inc anaani anaani kiina kiiní kiinoo kiinak kiinas kiinal kiinad
2P ataani ataani siina siiní siinoo siinak siinas siinal siinad
3P isaani isaani koota kootí kootii kootik kootis kootil kootid
Qino clitic personal pronouns
Subject Accusative 1 Accusative 2 Dative Ablative Instrumental Comitative Locative
1S an yi kii yoo yak yas yal yad
2SM at ku kaa kuu kuk kus kul kud
2SF at tu taa tuu tuk tus tul tud
3SM us ka keesh koo kak kas kal kad
3SF ish ta teet too tak tas tal tad
1Ex un na keen noo nak nas nal nad
1Inc anan yin kiin yinoo yinak yinas yinal yinad
2P atan sin siin sinoo sinak sinas sinal sinad
3P isan tin koot tinoó tinak tinas tinal tinad
REF is isoo isak isas isal isad
REC ol oloo olak olas olal olad

Notes:

  • When there is one accusative object pronoun, either the "accusative 1" or "accusative 2" forms can be used. When there are multiple clitic objects, the final one takes the "accusative 2" form and the rest the "accusative 1" form.
  • Third person clitic pronouns are often omitted. When the this occurs in oblique cases, the corresponding free postposition forms are used (oo, ak, as, al, and ad respectively).

Verbs

Class I

Suffix Conjugation

Most consonant-initial verbs fall into this category. Example: sheeni "to bring".

Suffix conjugation
Infinitive -́i sheeni
Active Participle -áa sheenaa
Passive Participle1 -an- sheenan-
Present Affirmative2 Present Subordinate2 Pres. Subord. Neg. Past Affirmative2 Past Negative Jussive/Imperative Aff. Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S sheená sheenó -íno sheeníno sheené -íne sheeníne -́u sheenu -ínu sheenínu
2S -tá sheen -tó sheen -ínto sheeninto -té sheen -ínte sheeninte -́u sheenu -ínu sheenínu
3SM sheená sheenó -íno sheeníno sheené -íne sheeníne -́u sheenu -ínu sheenínu
3SF -tá sheen -tó sheen -ínto sheeninto -té sheen -inte sheenínte -́tu sheentu -intu sheeníntu
1P -ná sheen -nó sheen -ínno sheeninno -né sheen -ínne sheeninne -́nu sheennu -ínnu sheeninnu
2P -taana sheentaana -toona sheentoona -intoona sheenintoona -teeni sheenteeni -inteeni sheeninteeni -́aa sheénaa -ínaa sheenínaa
3P -aana sheenaana -oona sheenoona -inoona sheeninoona -eeni sheeneeni -ineeni sheenineeni -́aa sheénaa -ínaa sheenínaa

Notes:

1 Conjugates as an adjective.

2 The final vowel in the singular and 1P forms (i.e. -á/ó/é) lose their stress when non-final and lengthen in questions.

Prefix Conjugation

Vowel-initial verbs. Example verb: arki "to see".

Prefix conjugation
Infinitive -i arki
Active Participle -áa arkaa
Passive Participle -an- arkan-
Present Affirmative Present Subordinate Pre. Subord. Neg. Past Affirmative Past Negative Jussive/Imperative Aff. Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S arká arkó -íno arkíno arké -íne arkíne -́u arku -ínu arkínu
2S t-á tarká t-ó tarkó t-íno tarkíno t-é tarké t-íne tarkíne -́u arku -ínu arkínu
3SM y-á yarká y-ó yarkó y-íno yarkíno y-é yarké y-íne yarkíne y-́u yarku y-ínu yarkínu
3SF t-á tarká t-ó tarkó t-íno tarkíno t-é tarké t-íne tarkíne t-́u tarku t-ínu tarkínu
1P n-á narká n-ó narkó n-íno narkíno n-é narké n-íne narkíne n-́u narku n-ínu narkínu
2P t-aana tarkaana t-oona tarkoona t-inoona tarkinoona t-eeni tarkeeni t-ineeni tarkineeni -́aa árkaa -ínaa arkínaa
3P y-aana yarkaana y-oona yarkoona y-inoona yarkinoona y-eeni yarkeeni y-ineeni yarkineeni y-́aa yárkaa y-ínaa yarkínaa

Class II: Adjectival Conjugation

This used for adjectives and a few stative verbs. The citation form is the 3SM present affirmative. They each have a Class I counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: case "red" (inchoative: casoowi "to become red"). For the infinitive, passive participle, and imperatives/jussives, use the Class I forms.

Adjectival conjugation
Active Participle -íi casii
Present Affirmative Present Subordinate Past Affirmative Past Negative
1S -iiye casiiye -iiyé casiiyé -iishe casiishe -iishé casiishé
2S -iite casiite -iité casiité -iiche casiiche -iiché casiiché
3SM -́e case casé -iishe casiishe -iishé casiishé
3SF -́e case casé -iiche casiiche -iiché casiiché
1P -iine casiine -iiné casiiné -iinye casiinye -iinyé casiinyé
2P -iitiini casiitiini -iitiini casitiini -iichiini casiichiini -iichiini casiichiini
3P -iini casiini -iini casiini -iishiini casiishiini -iishiini casiishiini

Note: The present subordinate negative form is identical to the present subordinate affirmative.

Tense, Aspect, Mood

Notes:

  • The Class I forms ending in a stressed vowel lose the stress when non-final and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. yarká "he sees", yarka nama "person who sees", yarkaa? "does he see?"
Simple Present
  • Used for an action in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous).
  • Main clause:
    • Affirmative: "Present indicative" - e.g. yarká "he sees"
    • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate" - e.g. ma yarkó "he does not see"
  • Subordinate clause:
    • Affirmative: "Present subordinate" - e.g. yarkonoo "so that he sees"
    • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate negative" - e.g. ma yarkinonoo "so that he does not see"
Simple Past
  • Used for an action in the past.
  • Main clause:
    • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarké "he saw"
    • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkíne "he did not see"
  • Subordinate clause:
    • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarkenas "because he saw"
    • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkinenas "because he did not see"
Imperative
  • Used for a command in the second person.
  • Affirmative: "Imperative affirmative" - e.g. arku "see!"
  • Negative: hin + "Imperative negative" - e.g. hin arkínu "do not see!"
Jussive
  • Used for a wish, command, etc in the first and third person.
  • Affirmative: haa "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. haa yarku "let him see!"
  • Negative: ma + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ma yarkínu "let him not see!"

Syntax

Constituent order

SOV

Noun phrase

  • Modifiers come before the noun being modified.
  • Case endings and postpositions come at the end of a noun phrase. If it does not end in a noun, an -n is added before case endings or non-clitic forms are used.

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

كل نموت ڢرنے شرڢكں شے حفوفک ألفطے طلتاں. ماں شے ضمير شينميں٬ إں أبلنں ألل ربدوں فباں

كل نموت فرني شرفكن شي حقوقك ألقطي طلتان. مان شي ضمير شينمين، إن أبلنن ألل ربدون قبان

ኩሊ ነሞቲ ፉረኒ ሸረፈክኔ ሺ ሑቁቀክ ኦል ቅጢ ጠለታነ። መነ ሺ ፀሚረ ሼነሜኒ፣ እን ኦቦሊነኔ ኦለል ሩብዶነ ቀባነ።

Kulli namooti furanii sharafakne shi xuquuqak ol qiddhii dhalataana. Maana shi lhamiira sheenameeni, in obbolínane olal rubdoona qabaana.

/ˈkul.li naˈmoːti furaˈniː ʃaraˈfak.ne ʃi xuɠuːˈɠak ol ˌɠiɗ.ˈɗiː ɗalaˈtaːna ˈmaːna ʃi lˀaˈmiːra ˌʃeːnaˈmeːni in ˌobːoˈlinane oˈlal ˌrubˈdoːna ɠaˈbaːna/

Gloss: All people.NOM free.PART dignity.ABL-and and rights.ABL each-other equal.PART born.3P. Reason and conscience give.PAS.3P, REL brotherhood-and each-other.COM live.SBJV.3P have.3P

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