Ancient stage
Phonology (Younger, 19XX)
Consonants
Bolded consonants can also be finals.
| Manner |
Labial |
Dental |
Retroflex |
Palatal |
Velar
|
Notes
|
| Plosive
|
p |
t |
ʈ |
c |
k
|
Some reconstruct additional voiced plosives.
|
| Pre-nasalised Plosives
|
ⁿp |
ⁿt |
ⁿʈ |
ⁿc |
ⁿk
|
ɴC or (m,n..)C is another valid style of transcription, as is C̃
|
| Nasals
|
m |
n |
ɳ |
ɲ |
ŋ
|
|
| Voiceless Nasals
|
m̊ |
n̊ |
ɳ̊ |
ɲ̊ |
ŋ̊
|
qC or hC is another valid style of transcription
|
| Sonorants
|
w |
l |
r |
y |
ʀ
|
These are also sometimes analysed as appearing between initials and vowels.*
|
| Voiceless Sonorants
|
ẘ |
l̥ |
r̊ |
ẙ |
ʀ̊
|
|
| Fricatives
|
h* |
s* |
ʂ |
ç |
x
|
|
Notes
- *In analyses where the sonorants are seen as possible glides between initials and the nucleus, the distribution of initials changes quite heavily.
- There is also a glottal stop, sometimes written as <q>.
- <h> represents would-be /ɸ/, but this sound, when constructed, is meant to suggest a sound change before the voiceless labial sonorant arose. Some do not reconstruct it at all.
- <s> is argued by some to be /θ/.
Vowels
There are considerably less vowels than consonants, but these have a large number of environmental allophones.
| Height
|
+y
|
+l
|
+Ø
|
+r
|
+ʀ
|
+w
|
| Closed
|
i |
ɪ |
ɨ |
ə |
ɯ |
u
|
| Mid
|
e |
ɜ |
ǝ |
ə |
ʌ |
o
|
| Open
|
æ |
æ |
a |
a |
ɑ |
ɑ
|
Phonology (Elder, 20XX)
Consonants
Initials
| Manner |
Labial |
Dental |
Velar |
Glottal
|
| Plosive
|
p |
t |
k |
ʔ
|
| Pre-nasalised Plosives
|
ⁿp |
ⁿt |
ⁿk |
|
| Nasals
|
m |
n |
ŋ |
|
| Voiceless Nasals
|
hm |
hn |
hŋ |
|
| Fricatives
|
f |
s |
x |
h
|
Glides
| Labial Semivowel |
Dental Lateral |
Retroflex Rhotic |
Palatal Semivowel |
Guttural Rhotic
|
| w |
l |
r |
y |
ʀ
|
Prominent Initial-Glide combinations and common outcomes
|
ʔ- |
p- |
t- |
k- |
m- |
n- |
ŋ- |
mp- |
nt- |
ŋk- |
f- |
s- |
x- |
h-
|
Notes
|
| +w
|
w |
p |
t |
k |
m, w |
n, m |
ŋ, m |
b |
d |
g |
f |
s |
x, f |
hw, f
|
Only the Velar series and guttural fricatives are (minimally) affected
|
| +l
|
l |
p |
ty |
k |
m, n |
n, l |
ŋ, n |
b |
dy |
g |
hl |
sy, hl |
hl |
hl
|
The Dental series is the only one considerably affected
|
| +r
|
r |
p |
tʂ |
k |
m, ɳ |
ɳ, r |
ŋ, ɳ |
b |
dʐ |
g |
hr |
ʂ, hr |
hr |
hr
|
The Dental series is the only one considerably affected
|
| +y
|
y |
p |
tɕ |
c |
m, ɲ |
ɲ, n |
ɲ, ŋ |
b |
dʑ |
ɟ |
hy |
ɕ, hy |
ç, hy |
hy
|
The Dental and Velar series are equally affected
|
| +ʀ
|
ʀ |
p |
t |
k, q |
m, ŋ |
n, ŋ |
ŋ, ʀ |
b |
d |
g, ɢ |
hʀ, f |
hʀ, s |
hʀ, x |
hʀ
|
Only the Velar series is affected; overall this is the least impactful glide.
|
Finals
| Manner |
Labial |
Dental |
Retroflex |
Palatal |
Velar |
Glottal
|
| Plosive
|
p |
t |
ʈ |
c |
k |
ʔ
|
| Nasals
|
m |
n |
ɳ |
ɲ |
ŋ |
|
| Voiceless Nasals (1)
|
m̊ |
n̊ |
ɳ̊ |
ɲ̊ |
ŋ̊ |
|
| Sonorants
|
w |
l |
r |
y |
ʀ |
|
| Voiceless Sonorants (2)
|
ẘ |
l̥ |
r̊ |
ẙ |
ʀ̊ |
|
| Fricatives (2)
|
h
|
Notes
- (1): These are commonly reconstructed as simple plosives, as there is scant evidence for a full final voiceless nasal series
- (2): These are controversial -- there is no direct evidence for them, and the only theories reconstructing them involve regressive voiceless harmony and proposed external relationships with other languages.
Common vowel outcomes
Note that /æ/ is sometimes written /ɛ/, /ʌ/ as /ɑ/, and /ǝa, aǝ/ as either /aa/ or /ɯa, aɯ/
| Height
|
y- |
+y
|
l- |
+l
|
Ø- |
+Ø
|
r- |
+r
|
ʀ- |
+ʀ
|
w- |
+w
|
| Closed /ɨ/
|
i |
i
|
ɨ |
ɨ
|
ɨ |
ɨ
|
ɨ |
ɨ
|
ɯ |
ɯ
|
u |
u
|
| Mid /ǝ/
|
ie |
ei
|
æ |
æ
|
ǝ |
ǝ
|
ǝa |
aǝ
|
ʌ |
ʌ
|
uo |
ou
|
| Open /a/
|
iæ |
æi
|
æ |
æ
|
a |
a
|
ǝa |
aǝ
|
ʌ |
ʌ
|
uɔ |
ɔu
|
Phonology (Shared)
Phonotactics
Syllable structure
Each syllable has a structure of CVC, better described as Initial-Nucleus-Final.
Disallowed roots
Generally, the retroflex coronals cannot appear together in the Initial and Finals lots of the syllable, unless it is the exact same consonant (which is essentially analysed as vestigial reduplication). Thus, a retroflex initial or final should generally be paired with a dental initial or final.
Vocabulary
Derived from PIE
- ḱḗr (ḱrd-)+ (y)eh2 -> trǝʀ, tyǝʀ
Derived from Hmong-Mien
- *ntshu -> ntsɨw "elephant"
- *ʔlen -> lǝɲ "monkey"
- *ŋgeu -> nkǝw "river deer"
- *tʂo -> trǝw "tiger"
- *Glɐn -> lǝm, lǝn "Chinese onion"
- *Nqaːn -> nkʀan "Cogon grass"
- *ɳõ -> nrǝw "follow"
- *m-nɔk -> nǝk, (m/n)wǝk "bird"
- *qlAu -> klaw "dog"
- *ŋɔːŋ -> ŋwaŋ, ŋaŋw "water buffalo"
- *ntsəːi -> ntsǝi "husked rice"
- *ɲaːŋ -> ɲaŋ "cooked rice"
Hmong-Mien vocab that resembles Austroasiatic
- PHM *ʔu̯əm 'water' -> ʔwǝm
- PHM *ntshjamX 'blood' -> ntsyam
- PHM *ntju̯əŋH 'tree' -> ntyǝŋ(w), ntyɨŋ
- PHM *ʔɲæmX 'to weep, cry' -> ɲam
- PHM *pənX 'to shoot' -> pǝn
- PHM *tu̯eiX 'tail' -> twǝy
- PHM *mpeiH 'to dream' -> mpǝy
- PHM *ʔpu̯ɛŋX 'full' -> pwǝŋ, pwaŋy
- Proto-Hmongic *mbrɔD 'ant' -> mpraw
- Proto-Mienic *səpD 'centipede' -> sǝp
- PHM *klup 'grasshopper' -> klɨp(w)
- PHM *ntshjeiX 'head louse' -> ntsyǝy
Vocab that resembles Tai-Kadai (Kra-Dai)
- Proto-Hmongic *kɛŋB 'I, 1.SG'; PT *kuːA (strong form), *kawA (weak form)
- kǝw, kɨw
- PHM *mu̯ei 'thou, 2.SG'; PT *mɯŋA (strong form), *maɰA (weak form)
- mɨʀ
- PHM *təjH 'to die', *dəjH 'to kill'; PT *p.taːjA 'to die'
- tay
- PHM *ʔneinX 'this'; PT *najC
- naɲ
- PHM *m-nɔk 'bird'; PT *C̬.nokD
- nwǝk
- PHM *mbrəuX 'fish'; PT *plaːA
- (n)p(l/r)ǝw
- Proto-Hmongic *hmaŋC 'wild dog'; PT *ʰmaːA 'dog'
- hma (see Hmongic + Tibeto-Burman stuff)
- Proto-Hmongic *ʔlinA 'monkey'; PT *liːŋA
- liŋ (see lǝɲ -- lɨŋy)
Derived from Sinic
- lhaŋʔ -> hlaŋ, hlak "elephant"
- w(h)an -> hwan, wan "monkey"
- krun -> krɨn, krɨm "river deer"
- nhāʔ -> hnaʔ "crossbow"
- m-lak-s -> mak, nak "shoot"
- łhuk -> hlukw, hlɨk "track, follow"
- snikʷ -> hnyɨk(w) "soybean"
- mhījʔ -> hmɨy "cooked rice" (meal, both senses?)
Austronesian
- matay -> (ma/n-)tay "die"
- mata -> (ma/n-)ta, ma(t) "eye"
- quluH -> klu "head"
- manuk -> (ma/n-)nuk "bird"
- buŋah -> (bu-/ma/n-)ŋa "flower"
Derived from multiple sources
PHM × OC
- PHM ʔraːp × OC ʔrāp-> rap "duck"
- PHM mpɒ × OC prā -> mpra "pig"
- PHM ʑwɒəːŋ × OC g(h)ʷān -> (n)kwaŋ "sheep, goat"
- PHM dǝp × OC d(h)ōs -> (n)tǝp "bean"
- PHM vǝu × OC *was -> wǝu "taro"
- PHM mblau × OC lhūʔ -> (n)plau, hlau? "rice plant"
PTB x PHM
- PHM *plei 'four' -> plǝy
- PHM *prja 'five' -> pya
- PHM *kruk 'six' -> krłk(w)
PHM *dzjuŋH 'seven' -> ntsyɨŋ(w)
PHM *jat 'eight' -> yat
PHM *N-ɟuə 'nine' -> nkyǝw
Proto-Hmongic *hnɛŋA and Proto-Mienic *hnu̯ɔiA 'sun, day' < PTB *s-nəy -> hnǝi
PHM *hlaH 'moon, month' < PTB *s-la -> hla
PHM *hməŋH 'night' (also 'dark') < PTB *s-muːŋ 'dark' -> hm(w)ɨŋ(w)
PHM *ʔɲam 'sister-in-law' (also 'daughter-in-law') < PTB *nam 'daughter-in-law' -> nam
PHM *ʔweiX 'son-in-law' < PTB *krwəy -> kʀǝy
PHM *hlep 'to slice' < PTB *s-lep -> hlǝp
PHM *hmjænX 'footprint, track' < PTB *s-naŋ 'to follow' -> hnaŋ
Proto-Hmongic *mjænB 'horse' < PTB *mraŋ -> mraŋ
PHM + OC + Austronesian
- *qǝi, kē (雞), *qayam -> kǝi "chicken"