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[[Category: Aterran]]
[[Category: Aterran]]


{{Bpnjohnson.info|Modern Standard Imperial|Drikva Yakke |ˈdrik.vɑ ˈjɑk.ʃe|2020|Planet Aterra|Conlang|||||||||}}
{{Bpnjohnson.info|Modern Standard Imperial|Drikva Yakke |ˈdrik.va ˈjak.ʃe|2020|Planet Aterra|Conlang|||||||||}}


'''''Drikva Yakke''''' /ˈdrik.vɑ ˈjɑk.ʃe/, or '''Modern Standard Imperial''', is a standardized analytic language developed from an earlier creolized form of of various ancient languages, though it still retains a rather deep orthography from an earlier form. It is written in the Imperial Script (Kuggi Yakke /ˈkuɡ.ʒi ˈjɑk.ʃe/), which is an alphabet originally written vertically in syllable blocks, but is now most commonly written left-to-right in individual letters. The block-form letters are still commonly used similarly to how majuscule letters are used in Latinate scripts.
'''''[[Contionary: drikva yakke#Modern Standard Imperial|Drikva Yakke]]''''' /ˈdrik.va ˈjak.ʃe/, or '''Modern Standard Imperial''', is a standardized analytic language developed from an earlier creolized form of of various ancient languages, though it still retains a rather deep orthography from an earlier form. It is written in the Imperial Script ('''''[[Contionary: kuggi yakke#Modern Standard Imperial|Kuggi Yakke]]''''' /ˈkuɡ.ʒi ˈjak.ʃe/), which is an alphabet originally written vertically in syllable blocks, but is now most commonly written left-to-right in individual letters. The block-form letters are still commonly used similarly to how majuscule letters are used in Latinate scripts.
 
The Imperial Language is actually a snapshot of several languages over the course of several centuries. While the written language changed very little in that time, the spoken language changed significantly, and the word order and syntax became much more rigid. In a way, it is analogous to Latin, the Classical form of which would barely be understood by speakers of Vulgar Latin a few centuries later, but the word forms remained largely the same.
 
* '''[[:Category: Modern Standard Imperial words|Modern Standard Imperial on Contionary]]'''


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
The Imperial Language is actually a snapshot of several languages over the course of several centuries. While the written language changed very little in that time, the spoken language changed significantly, and the word order and syntax became much more rigid. In a way, it is analogous to Latin, the Classical form of which would barely be understood by speakers of Vulgar Latin a few centuries later, but the word forms remained largely the same.


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Line 105: Line 108:
!style="text-align: right;"| Mid
!style="text-align: right;"| Mid
| æ ·
| æ ·
| · ɑ
| a ·
|}
|}


====Diphthongs====
====Diphthongs====


There were no diphthongs in Old Imperial; The modern diphthongs are contractions or earlier bi-syllabic constructions. E.g. '''''[[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]]''''' ‘I’ was pronounced as /ˈme.u/ rather than the modern /mew/.
There were no diphthongs in Old Imperial; The modern diphthongs are contractions of earlier bi-syllabic constructions. E.g. '''''[[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]]''''' ‘I’ was pronounced as /ˈme.u/ rather than the modern /mew/.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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|}
|}


==Writing System(s)==
===Orthography & Romanization===
===Orthography & Romanization===


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!width=50| Hrz
!width=50| Vrt
!width=50| Rom
!width=50| Rom
!width=50| IPA
!width=50| IPA
!width=600 style="text-align: left;"| Description
!width=600 style="text-align: left;"| Description
!width=200| Example
|-
|-
|
|
| '''a'''
| '''a'''
| ɑ
| a~ɑ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈a〉 in English ''father''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈a〉 in English ''father''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: aggè#Modern Standard Imperial|aggè]]''''' ‘some’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ae'''
| '''ae'''
| aj
| aj
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈i〉 in English ''wine''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈i〉 in English ''wine''.  
|-
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: blaesh#Modern Standard Imperial|blaesh]]''''' ‘144’
| '''ai'''
| aj
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈i〉 in English ''wine''.
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ao'''
| '''ao'''
| aw
| aw
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ow〉 in English ''house''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ow〉 in English ''house''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: lhao#Modern Standard Imperial|lhao]]''''' ‘above’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''à'''
| '''à'''
| æ
| æ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈a〉 in English ''bat''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈a〉 in English ''bat''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: pàn#Modern Standard Imperial|pàn]]''''' ‘child’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''b'''
| '''b'''
| b
| b
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈b〉 in English ''bot''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈b〉 in English ''bot''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: blizh#Modern Standard Imperial|beblizh]]''''' ‘pair of eyes’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''bb'''
| '''bb'''
| bv
| bv
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈bv〉 in English ''obvious''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈bv〉 in English ''obvious''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: rabba#Modern Standard Imperial|rabba]]''''' ‘to swim’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''bh'''
| '''bh'''
| v
| v
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈v〉 in English ''very''. Identical to 〈v〉, but from an earlier /bʰ/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈v〉 in English ''very''. Identical to 〈v〉, but from an earlier /bʰ/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: raebh#Modern Standard Imperial|raebh]]''''' ‘new’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''d'''
| '''d'''
| d
| d
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈d〉 in English ''day''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈d〉 in English ''day''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: dehi#Modern Standard Imperial|dehi]]''''' ‘to do’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''dd'''
| '''dd'''
| dz
| dz
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈dz〉 in English ''adze''. Identical to 〈tz〉, but from an earlier /dd/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈dz〉 in English ''adze''. Identical to 〈tz〉, but from an earlier /dd/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: yadde#Modern Standard Imperial|yadde]]''''' ‘old’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''dh'''
| '''dh'''
| ð
| ð
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈th〉 in English ''this''. (Never as in ''thin''.)
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈th〉 in English ''this''. (Never as in ''thin''.)  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: kladha#Modern Standard Imperial|kladha]]''''' ‘9’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''dl'''
| '''dl'''
| dɮ
| dɮ
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an English sound. Identical to 〈dlh〉, but from an earlier /dl/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an English sound. Identical to 〈dlh〉, but from an earlier /dl/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: dlaka#Modern Standard Imperial|dlaka]]''''' ‘snake’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''dlh'''
| '''dlh'''
| dɮ
| dɮ
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an English sound. The sound of 〈d〉 followed immediately by 〈lh〉.
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an English sound. The sound of 〈d〉 followed immediately by 〈lh〉.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: dlhu#Modern Standard Imperial|dlhu]]''''' ‘not’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''dzh'''
| '''dzh'''
| dʒ
| dʒ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈j〉 in English ''joke''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈j〉 in English ''joke''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: dzhote#Modern Standard Imperial|dzhote]]''''' ‘young’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''e'''
| '''e'''
| e
| e
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈e〉 in Spanish ''vero''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈e〉 in Spanish ''vero''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: etlh#Modern Standard Imperial|etlh]]''''' ‘4’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ei'''
| '''ei'''
| ej
| ej
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ay〉 in English ''day''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ay〉 in English ''day''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: hei#Modern Standard Imperial|hei]]''''' ‘you all’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''eu'''
| '''eu'''
| ew
| ew
|style="text-align: left;"| Like the 〈e〉 in ''egg'' followed immediately by 〈w〉.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like the 〈e〉 in ''egg'' followed immediately by 〈w〉.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]]''''' ‘me’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''è'''
| '''è'''
| ɛ
| ɛ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈e〉 in English ''bet''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈e〉 in English ''bet''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: shviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shviè]]''''' ‘ice’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''f'''
| '''f'''
| f
| f
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈f〉 in English ''foot''. Identical to 〈ph〉.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈f〉 in English ''foot''. Identical to 〈ph〉.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: fortal#Modern Standard Imperial|fortal]]''''' ‘rope’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''g'''
| '''g'''
| ɡ
| ɡ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈g〉 in English ''get''. (Never as in ''gel''.)
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈g〉 in English ''get''. (Never as in ''gel''.)  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: gathka#Modern Standard Imperial|gathka]]''''' ‘to steal’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''gg'''
| '''gg'''
| ɡʒ
| ɡʒ
|style="text-align: left;"| A little like 〈gg〉 in English ''suggest''. A 〈g〉 followed by a 〈zh〉 (see).
|style="text-align: left;"| A little like 〈gg〉 in English ''suggest''. A 〈g〉 followed by a 〈zh〉 (see).  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: ngaggè#Modern Standard Imperial|ngaggè]]''''' ‘sometime’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''h'''
| '''h'''
| h
| h
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈h〉 in English ''have''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈h〉 in English ''have''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: hati#Modern Standard Imperial|hati]]''''' ‘to finish’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''i'''
| '''i'''
| i
| i
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈i〉 in English ''machine''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈i〉 in English ''machine''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: ilè#Modern Standard Imperial|ilè]]''''' ‘1’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ie'''
| '''ie'''
| jɛ
| jɛ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ye〉 in English ''yet''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ye〉 in English ''yet''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: iel#Modern Standard Imperial|iel]]''''' ‘other’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''iu'''
| '''iu'''
| ju
| ju
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈you〉 in English ''you''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈you〉 in English ''you''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: dhiun#Modern Standard Imperial|dhiun]]''''' ‘right side’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ì'''
| '''ì'''
| ɪ
| ɪ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈i〉 in English ''bit''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈i〉 in English ''bit''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: trìdla#Modern Standard Imperial|trìdla]]''''' ‘why’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''k'''
| '''k'''
| k
| k
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈k〉 in English ''keep''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈k〉 in English ''keep''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: kashkì#Modern Standard Imperial|kashkì]]''''' ‘very’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''kh'''
| '''kh'''
| kʃ
| kʃ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ct〉 in English ''action''. Identical to 〈kk〉, but from earlier /kʰ/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ct〉 in English ''action''. Identical to 〈kk〉, but from earlier /kʰ/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: khìth#Modern Standard Imperial|khìth]]''''' ‘dirty’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''kk'''
| '''kk'''
| kʃ
| kʃ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ct〉 in English ''action''. Identical to 〈kh〉, but from earlier /kk/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ct〉 in English ''action''. Identical to 〈kh〉, but from earlier /kk/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: ukka#Modern Standard Imperial|ukka]]''''' ‘6’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''l'''
| '''l'''
| l
| l
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈l〉 in English ''laugh''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈l〉 in English ''laugh''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: lavani#Modern Standard Imperial|lavani]]''''' ‘year’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''lh'''
| '''lh'''
| ɬ~ɮ
| ɬ~ɮ
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an English sound. Like 〈ll〉 in Welsh ''llygoden'', but usually voiced.
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an English sound. Like 〈ll〉 in Welsh ''llygoden'', but usually voiced.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: lhat#Modern Standard Imperial|lhat]]''''' ‘tooth’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''m'''
| '''m'''
| m
| m
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈m〉 in English ''man''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈m〉 in English ''man''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: mahe#Modern Standard Imperial|mahe]]''''' ‘house’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''n'''
| '''n'''
| n
| n
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈n〉 in English ''no''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈n〉 in English ''no''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: nente#Modern Standard Imperial|nente]]''''' ‘star’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ng'''
| '''ng'''
| ŋ
| ŋ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ng〉 in English ''singer''. (Never as in ''finger'' or ''ginger''.)
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ng〉 in English ''singer''. (Never as in ''finger'' or ''ginger''.)  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: ngun#Modern Standard Imperial|ngun]]''''' ‘whenever’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''o'''
| '''o'''
| o
| o
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈oa〉 in English ''boat''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈oa〉 in English ''boat''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: tho#Modern Standard Imperial|tho]]''''' ‘in front of’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ò'''
| '''ò'''
| ɔ
| ɔ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈au〉 in English ''caught''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈au〉 in English ''caught''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: òla#Modern Standard Imperial|òla]]''''' ‘father’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''p'''
| '''p'''
| p
| p
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈p〉 in English ''put''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈p〉 in English ''put''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: paen#Modern Standard Imperial|paen]]''''' ‘large’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ph'''
| '''ph'''
| f
| f
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈f〉 in English ''foot''. Identical to 〈f〉, but from earlier /pʰ/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈f〉 in English ''foot''. Identical to 〈f〉, but from earlier /pʰ/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: phamba#Modern Standard Imperial|phamba]]''''' ‘to fall’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''pp'''
| '''pp'''
| pf
| pf
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an English sound. Like 〈pf〉 in German ''Apfel''. From earlier /pp/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an English sound. Like 〈pf〉 in German ''Apfel''. From earlier /pp/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: veppat#Modern Standard Imperial|veppat]]''''' ‘smoke’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''r'''
| '''r'''
| ɾ
| ɾ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈r〉 in Spanish ''pero''; like 〈t〉 in (American) English ''water''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈r〉 in Spanish ''pero''; like 〈t〉 in (American) English ''water''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: riggu#Modern Standard Imperial|riggu]]''''' ‘red’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''s'''
| '''s'''
| s
| s
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈s〉 in English ''soap''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈s〉 in English ''soap''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: sakha#Modern Standard Imperial|sakha]]''''' ‘to strike’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''sh'''
| '''sh'''
| ʃ
| ʃ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈sh〉 in English ''shoe''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈sh〉 in English ''shoe''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: shukh#Modern Standard Imperial|shukh]]''''' ‘seed’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''t'''
| '''t'''
| t
| t
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈t〉 in English ''table''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈t〉 in English ''table''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: tè#Modern Standard Imperial|tè]]''''' ‘person’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''th'''
| '''th'''
| θ
| θ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈th〉 in English ''thing''. (Never as in ''these''.) From earlier /tʰ/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈th〉 in English ''thing''. (Never as in ''these''.) From earlier /tʰ/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: thra#Modern Standard Imperial|thra]]''''' ‘8’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''tl'''
| '''tl'''
| tɬ
| tɬ
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an English sound. Identical to 〈tlh〉, but from an earlier /tl/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an English sound. Identical to 〈tlh〉, but from an earlier /tl/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: tlaste#Modern Standard Imperial|tlaste]]''''' ‘distant’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''tlh'''
| '''tlh'''
| tɬ
| tɬ
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an english sound. Like 〈tl〉 in Nahuatl ''coyotl''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Not an english sound. Like 〈tl〉 in Nahuatl ''coyotl''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: tvetlh#Modern Standard Imperial|tvetlh]]''''' ‘16’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ts'''
| '''ts'''
| ts
| ts
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ts〉 in English ''cats''. Identical to 〈tt〉.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ts〉 in English ''cats''. Identical to 〈tt〉.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: yatsù#Modern Standard Imperial|yatsù]]''''' ‘left side’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''tsh'''
| '''tsh'''
| tʃ
| tʃ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ch〉 in English ''chair''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ch〉 in English ''chair''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: metsha#Modern Standard Imperial|metsha]]''''' ‘here’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''tt'''
| '''tt'''
| ts
| ts
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ts〉 in English ''cats''. Identical to 〈ts〉, but from earlier /tt/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ts〉 in English ''cats''. Identical to 〈ts〉, but from earlier /tt/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: mittè#Modern Standard Imperial|mittè]]''''' ‘just, only’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''tz'''
| '''tz'''
| dz
| dz
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ds〉 in English ''ads''. Identical to 〈dz〉, but from an earlier /ts/ that became voiced.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈ds〉 in English ''ads''. Identical to 〈dd〉, but from an earlier /ts/ that became voiced.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: atze#Modern Standard Imperial|atze]]''''' ‘island’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''u'''
| '''u'''
| u
| u
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈oo〉 in English ''boot''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈oo〉 in English ''boot''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: umè#Modern Standard Imperial|umè]]''''' ‘2’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ua'''
| '''ua'''
| wɑ
| wɑ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈wa〉 in English ''want''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈wa〉 in English ''want''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: ruan#Modern Standard Imperial|ruan]]''''' ‘daughter’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ue'''
| '''ue'''
| we
| we
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈we〉 in English ''went''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈we〉 in English ''went''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: guelh#Modern Standard Imperial|guelh]]''''' ‘brown’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ui'''
| '''ui'''
| wi
| wi
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈wee〉 in English ''week''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈wee〉 in English ''week''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: kuis#Modern Standard Imperial|kuis]]''''' ‘grey’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''ù'''
| '''ù'''
| ʊ
| ʊ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈oo〉 in English ''good''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈oo〉 in English ''good''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: phetùk#Modern Standard Imperial|phetùk]]''''' ‘brother’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''v'''
| '''v'''
| v
| v
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈v〉 in English ''very''. Identical to 〈bh〉, but from earlier /w/.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈v〉 in English ''very''. Identical to 〈bh〉, but from earlier /w/.
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: vae#Modern Standard Imperial|vae]]''''' ‘for’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''y'''
| '''y'''
| j
| j
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈y〉 in English ''yes''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈y〉 in English ''yes''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: yagre#Modern Standard Imperial|yagre]]''''' ‘heavy’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''z'''
| '''z'''
| z
| z
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈z〉 in English ''zoo''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈z〉 in English ''zoo''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: azokha#Modern Standard Imperial|azokha]]''''' ‘ash’
|-
|-
|
|
| '''zh'''
| '''zh'''
| ʒ
| ʒ
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈si〉 in English ''vision'' or 〈g〉 in French ''genre''.
|style="text-align: left;"| Like 〈si〉 in English ''vision'' or 〈g〉 in French ''genre''.  
|style="text-align: left;"| '''''[[Contionary: lezh#Modern Standard Imperial|lezh]]''''' ‘will be’
|}
|}


You will note that there are several combinations which appear to have identical pronunciation. This is due to sound changes during the creolization of the Imperial language which have created mergers. For example, the '''kh''' in '''''[[Contionary: thikhe#Modern Standard Imperial|thikhe]]''''' ‘sharp’ and the '''kk''' in '''''[[Contionary: thrakku#Modern Standard Imperial|thrakku]]''''' ‘like that’ are both pronounced like the '''ksh''' in '''''[[Contionary: thraksha#Modern Standard Imperial|thraksha]]''''' ‘like this’. However, in Old Imperial, they were pronounced [ˈuːkʰɑ], [tʰrɑkˈkũ], and [tʰrɑkˈtʃɑ], respectively.
You will note that there are several combinations which appear to have identical pronunciation. This is due to sound changes during the creolization of the Imperial language which have created mergers. For example, the '''kh''' in '''''[[Contionary: thikhe#Modern Standard Imperial|thikhe]]''''' [ˈθi'''kʃ'''e] ‘sharp’ and the '''kk''' in '''''[[Contionary: thrakku#Modern Standard Imperial|thrakku]]''''' [ˈθɾa'''kʃ'''u] ‘like that’ are both pronounced like the '''ksh''' in '''''[[Contionary: thraksha#Modern Standard Imperial|thraksha]]''''' [ˈθɾa'''kʃ'''a] ‘like this’. However, in Old Imperial, they were pronounced [ˈtʰi'''kʰ'''eː], [tʰrɑ'''kˈk'''ũ], and [tʰrɑ'''kˈtʃ'''ɑ], respectively.
 
===The Imperial Script (''Kuggi Yakke'')===
Though this guide uses almost exclusively Romanization for describing the Imperial language, that Romanization (as described above) is derived directly from the Imperial “Alphabet” known as '''''[[Contionary: kuggi yakke#Modern Standard Imperial|Kuggi Yakke]]''''' (“Imperial Writing”). The ''Yakke'' script is arranged in “blocks” of syllables consisting of (minimally) a single vowel, and may contain various types on onsets and codas, each syllable basically forming a square shape. In most modern writing, this square format has been ignored due to constraints on space, and writing has become more compact, but the block style is still a default for signs, titles, important words, and other functions, a bit like majuscule letters or italics might used in Latin scripts, or hiragana in Japanese. These are not direct analogies, of course, but be aware that block script is usually used to set apart important words from other text.
 
Traditionally the ''Yakke'' script was written vertically from top to bottom in columns from right to left. Recently it has become more common to write it horizontally from left to right, but unlike languages like Chinese or Japanese, where writing direction has changed but character orientation has remained constant, Yakke script written horizontally also changes the direction of the written characters, so a horizontal text can simply be turned 90° to become a vertical text, more like how Mongolian or Manchurian are vertical scripts derived from Sogdian, a vertical script based on horizontally written Syriac.
 
In all there are three main types of characters: Onsets, secondary onset modifiers, and vowels. Onsets may use the entire width of the character, or may share the initial space with a secondary onset modifier. Vowels always use the entire width of the character (in the case of vertical script) or height (for horizontal).
 
====Onsets====
There are nineteen possible onsets: (Stay tuned for graphics!)
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!width=39| Hrz
!width=39| Vrt
!width=39| Rom
|width=13 rowspan=6|  
!width=39| Hrz
!width=39| Vrt
!width=39| Rom
|width=13 rowspan=6|  
!width=39| Hrz
!width=39| Vrt
!width=39| Rom
|width=13 rowspan=6|  
!width=39| Hrz
!width=39| Vrt
!width=39| Rom
|width=13 rowspan=6|  
!width=39| Hrz
!width=39| Vrt
!width=39| Rom
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-p-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter p]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-p-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter p]]
| '''p'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-t-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter t]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-t-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter t]]
| '''t'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-k-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter k]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-k-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter k]]
| '''k'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-s-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter s]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-s-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter s]]
| '''s'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-l-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter l]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-l-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter l]]
| '''l'''
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-b-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter b]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-b-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter b]]
| '''b'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-d-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter d]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-d-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter d]]
| '''d'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-g-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter g]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-g-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter g]]
| '''g'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-z-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter z]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-z-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter z]]
| '''z'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-r-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter r]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-r-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter r]]
| '''r'''
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-m-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter m]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-m-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter m]]
| '''m'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-n-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter n]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-n-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter n]]
| '''n'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-ng-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter ng]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-ng-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter ng]]
| '''ng'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-sh-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter sh]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-sh-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter sh]]
| '''sh'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-lh-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter lh]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-lh-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter lh]]
| '''lh'''
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-v-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter v]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-v-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter v]]
| '''v'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-y-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter y]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-y-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter y]]
| '''y'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-h-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter h]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-h-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter h]]
| '''h'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-zh-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter zh]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-zh-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter zh]]
| '''zh'''
|colspan=3|  
|}
 
====Secondary Onsets====
There are eight possible secondary onsets, consisting of two groups: four which precede the primary onset (starting at the bottom of a stroke in the vertical or on the left for horizontal), and four which follow it (at the top or right, respectively):  (Stay tuned for graphics!)
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!colspan=3| Preceding
|width=13 rowspan=6|  
!colspan=3| Following
|-
!width=39| Hrz
!width=39| Vrt
!width=39| Rom
!width=39| Hrz
!width=39| Vrt
!width=39| Rom
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-s-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter s]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-s-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter s]]
| '''s'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-h-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter h]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-h-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter h]]
| '''h'''
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-d-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter d]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-d-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter d]]
| '''d'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-r-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter r]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-r-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter r]]
| '''r'''
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-t-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter t]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-t-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter t]]
| '''t'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-l-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter l]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-l-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter l]]
| '''l'''
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-sh-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter sh]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-sh-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter sh]]
| '''sh'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-v-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter v]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-v-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter v]]
| '''v'''
|}
 
====Nuclei (Vowels)====
There are ten vowels or nuclei:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!colspan=3| Tense
|width=13 rowspan=7|  
!colspan=3| Lax
|-
!width=39| Hrz
!width=52| Vrt
!width=39| Rom
!width=39| Hrz
!width=52| Vrt
!width=39| Rom
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-i-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter i]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-i-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter i]]
| '''i'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-ì-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter ì]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-ì-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter ì]]
| '''ì'''
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-e-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter e]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-e-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter e]]
| '''e'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-è-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter è]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-è-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter è]]
| '''è'''
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-a-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter a]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-a-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter a]]
| '''a'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-à-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter à]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-à-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter à]]
| '''à'''
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-o-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter o]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-o-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter o]]
| '''o'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-ò-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter ò]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-ò-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter ò]]
| '''ò'''
|-
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-u-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter u]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-u-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter u]]
| '''u'''
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-ù-hrz.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Horizontal Letter ù]]
| [[File:Kuggiyakke-ù-vrt.png|frameless|none|Kuggi Yakke Vertical Letter ù]]
| '''ù'''
|}
 
There are no diphthongs in the writing system. Diphthongs are a recent development which evolved from adjacent syllables with no intervening consonants. In writing, they are still written as if they were two separate syllables. For example, meu ‘I’ is written as two blocks: me-u. However, this has led to modern non-block writing developing ligatures for the diphthongs which are beginning to take on their own shapes. Until such time as a spelling reform is implemented, however, the syllable blocks continue to be the standard.
 
====Codae====
Codae are ostensibly identical to the onsets, only written on to the right of the vowel (or below it in vertical script), but several of the onsets (such as '''p''', '''b''', '''d''', '''ng''', and '''z''') are not used in coda position. The secondary onsets are also very rarely used, occurring only in '''dzh''', '''tsh''', '''tlh''', and '''bh'''. Also note that syllables do not always fall into blocks as they do phonologically in polysyllabic words: There is a tendancy towards maximizing onsets which may not always be reflected in the writing.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
Line 426: Line 796:
====Irregular & Suppletive Nouns====
====Irregular & Suppletive Nouns====


There are several of the most common nouns which have irregular plurals. Some of the most common are:
Several of the most common nouns have irregular plurals. Some of the most common are:
* '''''[[Contionary: òla#Modern Standard Imperial|òla]]''''' ‘father’ → '''''kvòla''''' ‘fathers’ (not **''kvola'')
* '''''[[Contionary: òla#Modern Standard Imperial|òla]]''''' ‘father’ → '''''kvòla''''' ‘fathers’ (not **''kvola'')
* '''''[[Contionary: pàn#Modern Standard Imperial|pàn]]''''' ‘child’ → '''''pepàn''''' ‘children’ (not **''kve pàn'')
* '''''[[Contionary: pàn#Modern Standard Imperial|pàn]]''''' ‘child’ → '''''pepàn''''' ‘children’ (not **''kve pàn'')
* '''''[[Contionary: tè#Modern Standard Imperial|tè]]''''' ‘person’ → '''''kvètè''''' ‘people’ (not **''tete''), '''''but'''''
* '''''[[Contionary: yìr#Modern Standard Imperial|yìr]]''''' ‘thing’ → '''''kveyir''''' ‘things’ (not **''kve yìr'')
* '''''[[Contionary: tè#Modern Standard Imperial|tè]]''''' ‘person’ → '''''kvètè''''' ‘people’ (not **''tete''). '''''[[Contionary: tè#Modern Standard Imperial|Tè]]''''' in particular has a number of irregular compounds. One commonality is that the lax vowel is almost never tensed as it would be in normal plurals. Some compounds are formed with '''''[[Contionary: kvè#Modern Standard Imperial|kvè]]''''' (rather than the expected **'''''[[Contionary: kve#Modern Standard Imperial|kve]]'''''), while others use reduplication:
** '''''[[Contionary: arratè#Modern Standard Imperial|arratè]]''''' ‘hunter’ → '''''kv'''arrat'''è'''''
** '''''[[Contionary: lurkatè#Modern Standard Imperial|lurkatè]]''''' ‘murderer’ → '''''kvè'''lurkat'''è'''''
** '''''[[Contionary: shatviarratè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatviarratè]]''''' ‘investigator’ → ''shatvi'''kv'''arra'''tè'''''
** '''''[[Contionary: shatvietè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatvietè]]''''' ‘teacher’ → '''''she'''shatvie'''tè''''', '''''but'''''
** '''''[[Contionary: tetzavà#Modern Standard Imperial|tetzavà]]''''' ‘cyborg’ → '''''kvètetzava''''' ‘cyborgs’ (not **''kvètètzava'', using the irregular plural of '''''tè''''' or **''tetetzava'' using the regular masculine plural)
** '''''[[Contionary: tetzavà#Modern Standard Imperial|tetzavà]]''''' ‘cyborg’ → '''''kvètetzava''''' ‘cyborgs’ (not **''kvètètzava'', using the irregular plural of '''''tè''''' or **''tetetzava'' using the regular masculine plural)
* '''''[[Contionary: yìr#Modern Standard Imperial|yìr]]''''' ‘thing’ → '''''kveyir''''' ‘things’ (not **''kve yìr'')


=====Dual Nouns=====
=====Dual Nouns=====


Some non-masculine nouns, particularly those referring to body parts which come in pairs, use masculine-type reduplication when referring explicitly to the paired sense, and '''''[[Contionary: kve#Modern Standard Imperial|kve]]''''' otherwise. E.g.:
Some non-masculine nouns, particularly those referring to body parts which come in pairs, use masculine-type reduplication when referring explicitly to the paired sense, and '''''[[Contionary: kve#Modern Standard Imperial|kve]]''''' otherwise. E.g.:
* '''''[[Contionary: bhèt#Modern Standard Imperial|bhèt]]''''' ‘breast’ → '''''bebhèt''''' ‘pair of breasts’ → '''''kve bhèt''''' ‘(many) breasts’
* '''''[[Contionary: blizh#Modern Standard Imperial|blizh]]''''' ‘eye’ → '''''beblizh''''' ‘pair of eyes’ → '''''kve blizh''''' ‘(many) eyes’
* '''''[[Contionary: blizh#Modern Standard Imperial|blizh]]''''' ‘eye’ → '''''beblizh''''' ‘pair of eyes’ → '''''kve blizh''''' ‘(many) eyes’
* '''''[[Contionary: bresh#Modern Standard Imperial|bresh]]'''''  ‘foot’ → '''''bebresh''''' ‘pair of feet’ → '''''kve bresh''''' ‘(many) feet’
* '''''[[Contionary: bresh#Modern Standard Imperial|bresh]]'''''  ‘foot’ → '''''bebresh''''' ‘pair of feet’ → '''''kve bresh''''' ‘(many) feet’
Line 444: Line 819:
* '''''[[Contionary: rinen#Modern Standard Imperial|rinen]]'''''  ‘knee’ → '''''rerinen''''' ‘pair of knees’ → '''''kve rinen''''' ‘(many) knees’
* '''''[[Contionary: rinen#Modern Standard Imperial|rinen]]'''''  ‘knee’ → '''''rerinen''''' ‘pair of knees’ → '''''kve rinen''''' ‘(many) knees’
* '''''[[Contionary: yinkesh#Modern Standard Imperial|yinkesh]]'''''  ‘wing’ → '''''yeyinkesh''''' ‘pair of wings’ → '''''kve yinkesh''''' ‘(many) wings’
* '''''[[Contionary: yinkesh#Modern Standard Imperial|yinkesh]]'''''  ‘wing’ → '''''yeyinkesh''''' ‘pair of wings’ → '''''kve yinkesh''''' ‘(many) wings’
While these “dual” forms almost always refer to grouped pairs of objects, they sometimes refer to sets of more than two, e.g. '''''[[Contionary: lhat#Modern Standard Imperial|lhat]]''''' ‘tooth’ → kve lhat ‘teeth’ → lelhat ‘set of teeth’. In the case of teeth, this may have originated with the dual sense of the upper and lower sets of teeth, and other sets were later analogized on this model.
Another slight irregularity is the (usually poetic) dual usage of '''''[[Contionary: thrin#Modern Standard Imperial|thrin]]''''' ‘heart’ to refer to couples in love, but generally the use of '''''tethrin''''' is discouraged in formal writing.


====Possession====
====Possession====
Line 498: Line 876:
| '''''[[Contionary: yìraggè#Mordern Standard Imperial|Yìraggè]] [[Contionary: dhi#Mordern Standard Imperial|dhi]] [[Contionary: bresh#Mordern Standard Imperial|bresh]] [[Contionary: go#Mordern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: meu#Mordern Standard Imperial|meu]].'''''<br />Something is on the bottom of my foot.
| '''''[[Contionary: yìraggè#Mordern Standard Imperial|Yìraggè]] [[Contionary: dhi#Mordern Standard Imperial|dhi]] [[Contionary: bresh#Mordern Standard Imperial|bresh]] [[Contionary: go#Mordern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: meu#Mordern Standard Imperial|meu]].'''''<br />Something is on the bottom of my foot.
|-
|-
! [[Contionary: dzu#Mordern Standard Imperial|dzu]]
! [[Contionary: tzu#Mordern Standard Imperial|tzu]]
| under, beneath, below
| under, beneath, below
| ''Sublative''
| ''Sublative''
| '''''[[Contionary: thombir#Mordern Standard Imperial|Thombir]] [[Contionary: dzu#Mordern Standard Imperial|dzu]] [[Contionary: dà#Mordern Standard Imperial|dà]].'''''<br />The worm is under the rock.
| '''''[[Contionary: thombir#Mordern Standard Imperial|Thombir]] [[Contionary: tzu#Mordern Standard Imperial|tzu]] [[Contionary: dà#Mordern Standard Imperial|dà]].'''''<br />The worm is under the rock.
|-
|-
! [[Contionary: go#Mordern Standard Imperial|go]]
! [[Contionary: go#Mordern Standard Imperial|go]]
Line 752: Line 1,130:
====Tense====
====Tense====
The past tense is formed using the auxiliary verb '''''[[Contionary: hati#Modern Standard Imperial|hati]]'''''. E.g.:  
The past tense is formed using the auxiliary verb '''''[[Contionary: hati#Modern Standard Imperial|hati]]'''''. E.g.:  
* He '''sees''' that tree. ''[[Contionary: shva#Modern Standard Imperial|Shva]] [[Contionary: thule#Modern Standard Imperial|thule]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] '''[[Contionary: veta#Modern Standard Imperial|veta]]'''.''
* ‘He '''sees''' that tree.’ ''[[Contionary: shva#Modern Standard Imperial|Shva]] [[Contionary: thule#Modern Standard Imperial|thule]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] '''[[Contionary: veta#Modern Standard Imperial|veta]]'''.''
:: → He '''saw''' that tree. ''[[Contionary: shva#Modern Standard Imperial|Shva]] [[Contionary: thule#Modern Standard Imperial|thule]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] '''[[Contionary: hati#Modern Standard Imperial|hati]] [[Contionary: veta#Modern Standard Imperial|veta]]'''.''
:: → ‘He '''saw''' that tree.’ ''[[Contionary: shva#Modern Standard Imperial|Shva]] [[Contionary: thule#Modern Standard Imperial|thule]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] '''[[Contionary: hati#Modern Standard Imperial|hati]] [[Contionary: veta#Modern Standard Imperial|veta]]'''.''


The future is formed using the auxiliary '''''[[Contionary: ati#Modern Standard Imperial|ati]]''''', which follows the verb, or may be suffixed to the verb in some circumstances. E.g.:  
The future is formed using the auxiliary '''''[[Contionary: ati#Modern Standard Imperial|ati]]''''', which follows the verb, or may be suffixed to the verb in some circumstances. E.g.:  
* He '''sees''' that tree. ''[[Contionary: shva#Modern Standard Imperial|Shva]] [[Contionary: thule#Modern Standard Imperial|thule]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] '''[[Contionary: veta#Modern Standard Imperial|veta]]'''.''
* ‘He '''sees''' that tree.’ ''[[Contionary: shva#Modern Standard Imperial|Shva]] [[Contionary: thule#Modern Standard Imperial|thule]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] '''[[Contionary: veta#Modern Standard Imperial|veta]]'''.''
:: → He '''will see''' that tree. ''[[Contionary: shva#Modern Standard Imperial|Shva]] [[Contionary: thule#Modern Standard Imperial|thule]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] '''[[Contionary: veta#Modern Standard Imperial|vet]]’[[Contionary: ati#Modern Standard Imperial|ati]]'''.''
:: → ‘He '''will see''' that tree.’ ''[[Contionary: shva#Modern Standard Imperial|Shva]] [[Contionary: thule#Modern Standard Imperial|thule]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] '''[[Contionary: veta#Modern Standard Imperial|vet]]’[[Contionary: ati#Modern Standard Imperial|ati]]'''.''
 
====Negation====
=====Negation with ''dlhu''=====
Negation is formed on most verbs by directly preceding the verb with the negative particle '''''[[Contionary: dlhu#Modern Standard Imperial|dlhu]]'''''. E.g.:
* ‘She will teach you how to make it.’ ''[[Contionary: dehu#Modern Standard Imperial|Dehu]] [[Contionary: vè#Modern Standard Imperial|vè]] [[Contionary: shatviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatviati]] [[Contionary: dehu#Modern Standard Imperial|dehu]], [[Contionary: thrakla#Modern Standard Imperial|thrakla]] [[Contionary: dehu#Modern Standard Imperial|dehu]] [[Contionary: dehi#Modern Standard Imperial|dehi]].''
:: → ‘She will '''not''' teach you.’ ''[[Contionary: dehu#Modern Standard Imperial|Dehu]] [[Contionary: vè#Modern Standard Imperial|vè]] ''[[Contionary: dlhu#Modern Standard Imperial|dlhu]]'' [[Contionary: shatviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatviati]] [[Contionary: dehu#Modern Standard Imperial|dehu]].''
 
=====Negation with ''ruk''=====
The copula '''''[[Contionary: ei#Modern Standard Imperial|ei]]''''' and the null copula are negated by replacing the copula (if extant) with the negative verb '''''[[Contionary: ruk#Modern Standard Imperial|ruk]]'''''. Some other common verbs also use '''''[[Contionary: ruk#Modern Standard Imperial|ruk]]''''' for negation instead of '''''[[Contionary: dlhu#Modern Standard Imperial|dlhu]]'''''. E.g.
* ‘That child is my brother.’ ''[[Contionary: pàn#Modern Standard Imperial|Pàn]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] [[Contionary: phetùk#Modern Standard Imperial|phetùk]] [[Contionary: go#Modern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]] ([[Contionary: ei#Modern Standard Imperial|ei]]).''
:: → ‘That child is '''not''' my brother.’ ''[[Contionary: pàn#Modern Standard Imperial|Pàn]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] [[Contionary: phetùk#Modern Standard Imperial|phetùk]] [[Contionary: go#Modern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]] '''[[Contionary: ruk#Modern Standard Imperial|ruk]]'''.''
* ‘Something is '''not''' right.’ ''[[Contionary: yìraggè#Modern Standard Imperial|Yìraggè]] [[Contionary: yadì#Modern Standard Imperial|yadì]] '''[[Contionary: ruk#Modern Standard Imperial|ruk]]'''.''


====Irregularity & Suppletion====
====Irregularity & Suppletion====
Many common verbs show suppletion in one or more forms (in bold):
Many common verbs show suppletion or irregularity in one or more forms (in bold):
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Present
! Present
Line 829: Line 1,219:


===Word Order & Alignments===
===Word Order & Alignments===
The basic order of Standard Imperial is SOV; that is: Subject, Object, Verb. However, as with many languages, it doesn’t fit quite so tidily into a single category. Intransitive or “objectless” clauses may be VS, and “verbless” predicative adjectival phrases may be AS or SA depending on various factors.


====Typology====
====Typology====
SOV~VS; VSO or SVO marked.


====Morphosyntactic Alignment====
====Morphosyntactic Alignment====
Historically, Ancient Imperial was a heavily marked nominative-accusative language, though this description is rather nominal, as no inflection exists in modern Standard Imperial that might differentiate marked nouns. Modern Imperial shows tendencies toward an ergative-absolutive structure in its non-standard handling of objectless subjects and duplication of certain subjects to coerce them into transitive roles (see '''[[#Bi-Transitive Verbs|Bi-Transitive Verbs]]'''), but not enough to be able to consider it an ergative-absolutive language.


====Noun Phrases====
====Noun Phrases====


The standard order ot most noun phrases is:
# Adposition
# Numeral
# '''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Noun</span>'''
# Demonstrative/Determiner
# Adjective (Phrase)
# Genitive (Phrase)
# Relative (Clause)
E.g. ‘…with those three thin men from the village who stole my brother’s dog’ would be translated more literally as “with three men those thin (ones) from village who dog of brother of me stole.”
{| class="wikitable"
|colspan=6| '''''…[[Contionary: thie#Modern Standard Imperial|thie]] [[Contionary: shar#Modern Standard Imperial|shar]] [[Contionary: rosha#Modern Standard Imperial|rarosha]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] [[Contionary: meish#Modern Standard Imperial|meish]] [[Contionary: ma#Modern Standard Imperial|ma]] [[Contionary: shuthket#Modern Standard Imperial|shuthket]],'''''
|-
| with || three || men || those || thin (ones) || from (the) village
|-
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">cmt</span> || 3 || <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pl</span>-man || <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">dist</span> || thin || <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">del</span> village
|-
| ''thie'' || ''shar'' || ''ra-rosha'' || ''ku'' || ''meish'' || ''ma shuthket''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|colspan=5| '''''[[Contionary: tèla#Modern Standard Imperial|tèla]] [[Contionary: bagè#Modern Standard Imperial|bagè]] [[Contionary: go#Modern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: phetùk#Modern Standard Imperial|phetùk]] [[Contionary: go#Modern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]] [[Contionary: hati#Modern Standard Imperial|hati]] [[Contionary: gathka#Modern Standard Imperial|gathka]].'''''
|-
| who || (the) dog || of (the) brother || of me || did steal
|-
| <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">rel</span> || dog || of brother || of <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg</span> || <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pst</span> steal
|-
| ''tèla'' || ''bagè'' || ''go phetùk'' || ''go meu'' || ''hati gathka''
|}
====Adjective Phrases====
====Adjective Phrases====
Degree adverbs precede the adjective they modify.
# Degree Adverbs
# '''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Adjective</span>'''
‘That was a very good dog,’ would be literally, ‘That (one) dog very good was.’
{| class="wikitable"
|colspan=5| '''''[[Contionary: tèku#Modern Standard Imperial|Tèku]] [[Contionary: bagè#Modern Standard Imperial|bagè]] [[Contionary: kashkì#Modern Standard Imperial|kashkì]] [[Contionary: savati#Modern Standard Imperial|savati]] [[Contionary: gan#Modern Standard Imperial|gan]].'''''
|-
| that (onw) || dog|| very || good || was
|-
| one-that || dog || <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">aug</span> || good || <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pst.cop</span>
|-
| ''tèku'' || ''bagè'' || ''kashkì'' || ''savati'' || ''gan''
|}
Alternatively, because of the copula-optional nature of the language as concerns adjectives, it is also correct to render this as: ''kashkì hati savati bagè ku''. (“Very was good dog that.”)
====Verb Phrases====
The typical verb phrase is arranged:
# Subject
# Object
# Spatial Adverb or Phrase
# Temporal Adverb or Phrase
# Standard Adverb
# Negative Marker
# '''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Verb</span>'''
# (Subject)<ref>There is a series of verbs derived from intransitive verbs where the subject is repeated after the verb in the manner of single-word subjects.</ref>
Verb Phrases consisting solely of one-word subject and verb:
# Subject
# '''<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Verb</span>'''


===Copular Clauses===
===Copular Clauses===


===Negation===
The copula in the Old Imperial language was '''''[[Contionary: ei#Modern Standard Imperial|ei]]''''', and was always required; however, in Modern Standard Imperial, the copula is optional in both equative phrases and phrases with adjectival predicates. E.g.:
* ‘That child is my brother.’
** ''[[Contionary: pàn#Modern Standard Imperial|Pàn]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] [[Contionary: phetùk#Modern Standard Imperial|phetùk]] [[Contionary: go#Modern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]] '''[[Contionary: ei#Modern Standard Imperial|ei]]''''', or simply
** ''[[Contionary: pàn#Modern Standard Imperial|Pàn]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] [[Contionary: phetùk#Modern Standard Imperial|phetùk]] [[Contionary: go#Modern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]].''
* ‘Your stone is heavy.’
** ''[[Contionary: dà#Modern Standard Imperial|Dà]] [[Contionary: go#Modern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: vè#Modern Standard Imperial|vè]] [[Contionary: yagre#Modern Standard Imperial|yagre]] '''[[Contionary: ei#Modern Standard Imperial|ei]]''','' or
** ''[[Contionary: dà#Modern Standard Imperial|Dà]] [[Contionary: go#Modern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: vè#Modern Standard Imperial|vè]] [[Contionary: yagrei#Modern Standard Imperial|yagr'''ei''']],'' or
** ''[[Contionary: dà#Modern Standard Imperial|Dà]] [[Contionary: go#Modern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: vè#Modern Standard Imperial|vè]] [[Contionary: yagre#Modern Standard Imperial|yagre]].


====Negation with ''dlhu''====
In cases with an adjectival predicate (or other intransitive verbs) where the subject consists of a single word (usually a pronoun), the subject and verb may invert.
* ‘I am cold.’
** ''[[Contionary: amedi#Modern Standard Imperial|Amedi]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]],'' or
** ''[[Contionary: amedei#Modern Standard Imperial|Amed'''ei''']] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]].''
* ‘It is heavy.’
** ''[[Contionary: yagre#Modern Standard Imperial|Yagre]] [[Contionary: dehu#Modern Standard Imperial|dehu]].''
 
===Relative Clauses===
Relative clauses are formed, in pretty standard fashion, by using the interrogatives as relative conjunctions. Relative clauses follow the noun they modify. E.g.:
{| class="wikitable"
|colspan=7| ''[[Contionary: tèku#Modern Standard Imperial|Tèku]] [[Contionary: bagè#Modern Standard Imperial|bagè]], '''[[Contionary: tèla#Modern Standard Imperial|tèla]]''' [[Contionary: reshte#Modern Standard Imperial|reshte]] [[Contionary: go#Modern Standard Imperial|go]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]] [[Contionary: hati#Modern Standard Imperial|hati]] [[Contionary: langa#Modern Standard Imperial|langa]].''
|-
| That (one) || (the) dog || is || who || fish || of me || did eat
|-
| One-that || dog || <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">cop</span> || one-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">rel</span> || fish || of <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">1sg</span> || <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pst</span> eat
|-
| ''Tè-ku'' || ''bagè'' || ∅ || ''tè-la'' || ''reshte'' || ''go meu'' || hati langa
|}
‘That is the dog '''who''' ate my fish.’
 
{| class="wikitable"
|colspan=5| ''[[Contionary: seklesh#Modern Standard Imperial|Seklesh]] [[Contionary: kerei#Modern Standard Imperial|kerei]] '''[[Contionary: ngala#Modern Standard Imperial|ngala]]''' [[Contionary: yempath#Modern Standard Imperial|yempath]] [[Contionary: phamba#Modern Standard Imperial|phamba]].''
|-
| (The) earth || is-wet || when || the rain || is-falling
|-
| Earth || wet-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">cop</span> || time-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">rel</span> || rain || fall
|-
| ''Seklesh'' || ''kera-ei'' || ''nga-la'' || ''yempath'' || ''phamba''
|}
‘The earth is wet '''when''' it rains.’
 
===Bi-Transitive Verbs===
 
Not to be confused with ditransitive verbs, which are merely verbs which take a direct and indirect object, bi-transitive verb construction is a unique feature in Modern Standard Imperial which is semantically more or less equivalent to a causative (though there are other types of causatives as well). These are verbs which are intransitive by default, but can be made transitive by adding an object. However, since the subject follows the verb in intransitive clauses, but precedes it in those containing a predicate, this set of verbs developed a context in which the subject becomes duplicated. E.g.:
* ‘I know.’
*: ''[[Contionary: shatviè#Modern Standard Imperial|Shatviè]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]].''
(Here there is no object, and so the subject follows the verb.)
* ‘I know how to swim.’
*: (“I swimming know.”)
*: ''[[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|Meu]] [[Contionary: rabba#Modern Standard Imperial|rabba]] [[Contionary: shatviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatviè]].''
(Here there is a direct object, which triggers the sentence to revert back to its natural SOV order.)
* ‘I teach.’
*: (“I know I” → “I cause knowing.”)
*: ''[[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|Meu]] [[Contionary: shatviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatviè]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]] .''
* ‘I teach you.’
*: (“I you know I” → “I cause you to know.”)
*: ''[[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|Meu]] [[Contionary: vè#Modern Standard Imperial|vè]] [[Contionary: shatviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatviè]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]] .''
* ‘I teach you how to swim.’
*: (“I you swim know I” → “I cause you to know how to swim.”)
*: ''[[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|Meu]] [[Contionary: vè#Modern Standard Imperial|vè]] [[Contionary: rabba#Modern Standard Imperial|rabba]] [[Contionary: shatviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatviè]] [[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]] .''
If the subject is a noun or noun phrase (rather than a pronoun), its equivalent pronoun will follow the verb. (A full noun can never follow a verb in Modern Standard Imperial.)
* ‘That man teaches swimming.’
*: (“Man that knows swimming he.”)
*: ''[[Contionary: rosha#Modern Standard Imperial|Rosha]] [[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]] [[Contionary: rabba#Modern Standard Imperial|rabba]] [[Contionary: shatviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatviè]] [[Contionary: shva#Modern Standard Imperial|shva]] .''
 
Some other examples of bi-transitive causatives are:
{| class="wikitable"
! &nbsp;
! Intransitive
! Transitive
! Bi-Transitive
|-
! ''[[Contionary: ati#Modern Standard Imperial|ati]]''
| to go
| --
| to send (so sth)
|-
! ''[[Contionary: darrana#Modern Standard Imperial|darrana]]''
| to sit
| to set (sth)
| to seat (so)
|-
! ''[[Contionary: shatviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatviè]]''
| to know
| to know (sth)
| to teach (so sth)
|-
! ''[[Contionary: thuri#Modern Standard Imperial|thuri]]''
| to come
| --
| to bring (so sth)
|-
! ''[[Contionary: traya#Modern Standard Imperial|traya]]''
| to remain
| --
| to leave (sth) behind
|-
! ''[[Contionary: veta#Modern Standard Imperial|veta]]''
| to see
| to see (sth)
| to understand
|}


====Negation with ''ruk''====
==Vocabulary & Lexicon==
* '''[[:Category: Modern Standard Imperial words|Modern Standard Imperial on Contionary]]'''


===Relative Clauses===
===Swadesh List===
''(For those of you who like this sort of thing.)''
{| class="wikitable"
! &nbsp;
!width=75px| Imperial
!width=100px| English
! &nbsp;
!width=75px| Imperial
!width=105px| English
! &nbsp;
!width=75px| Imperial
!width=100px| English
|-
! 001
| '''[[Contionary: meu#Modern Standard Imperial|meu]]'''
| I
! 070
| '''[[Contionary: kvitta#Modern Standard Imperial|kvitta]]'''
| feather
! 139
| '''[[Contionary: nasta#Modern Standard Imperial|nasta]]'''
| to count
|-
! 002
| '''[[Contionary: vè#Modern Standard Imperial|vè]]'''
| you
! 071
| '''[[Contionary: platti#Modern Standard Imperial|platti]]'''
| hair (on head)
! 140
| '''[[Contionary: gvida#Modern Standard Imperial|gvida]]'''
| to say
|-
! 003
| '''[[Contionary: shva#Modern Standard Imperial|shva]]''', '''[[Contionary: dehu#Modern Standard Imperial|dehu]]'''
| he, she, it
! 072
| '''[[Contionary: patuk#Modern Standard Imperial|patuk]]'''
| head
! 141
| '''[[Contionary: shula#Modern Standard Imperial|shula]]'''
| to sing
|-
! 004
| '''[[Contionary: ta#Modern Standard Imperial|ta]]'''
| we
! 073
| '''[[Contionary: noth#Modern Standard Imperial|noth]]'''
| ear
! 142
| '''[[Contionary: nopra#Modern Standard Imperial|nopra]]'''
| to play
|-
! 005
| '''[[Contionary: hei#Modern Standard Imperial|hei]]'''
| you
! 074
| '''[[Contionary: blizh#Modern Standard Imperial|blizh]]'''
| eye
! 143
| '''[[Contionary: threka#Modern Standard Imperial|threka]]'''
| to float
|-
! 006
| '''[[Contionary: dì#Modern Standard Imperial|dì]]'''
| they
! 075
| '''[[Contionary: gaman#Modern Standard Imperial|gaman]]'''
| nose
! 144
| '''[[Contionary: blei#Modern Standard Imperial|blei]]'''
| to flow
|-
! 007
| '''[[Contionary: tsha#Modern Standard Imperial|tsha]]'''
| this
! 076
| '''[[Contionary: rigla#Modern Standard Imperial|rigla]]'''
| mouth
! 145
| '''[[Contionary: brona#Modern Standard Imperial|brona]]'''
| to freeze
|-
! 008
| '''[[Contionary: ku#Modern Standard Imperial|ku]]'''
| that
! 077
| '''[[Contionary: lhat#Modern Standard Imperial|lhat]]'''
| tooth
! 146
| '''[[Contionary: varra#Modern Standard Imperial|varra]]'''
| to swell
|-
! 009
| '''[[Contionary: metsha#Modern Standard Imperial|metsha]]'''
| here
! 078
| '''[[Contionary: merka#Modern Standard Imperial|merka]]'''
| tongue
! 147
| '''[[Contionary: shakuth#Modern Standard Imperial|shakuth]]'''
| sun
|-
! 010
| '''[[Contionary: methku#Modern Standard Imperial|methku]]'''
| there
! 079
| '''[[Contionary: krè#Modern Standard Imperial|krè]]'''
| fingernail
! 148
| '''[[Contionary: mirat#Modern Standard Imperial|mirat]]'''
| moon
|-
! 011
| '''[[Contionary: tèla#Modern Standard Imperial|tèla]]'''
| who
! 080
| '''[[Contionary: bresh#Modern Standard Imperial|bresh]]'''
| foot
! 149
| '''[[Contionary: nente#Modern Standard Imperial|nente]]'''
| star
|-
! 012
| '''[[Contionary: yìdla#Modern Standard Imperial|yìdla]]'''
| what
! 081
| '''[[Contionary: dendor#Modern Standard Imperial|dendor]]'''
| leg
! 150
| '''[[Contionary: yash#Modern Standard Imperial|yash]]'''
| water
|-
! 013
| '''[[Contionary: methla#Modern Standard Imperial|methla]]'''
| where
! 082
| '''[[Contionary: rinen#Modern Standard Imperial|rinen]]'''
| knee
! 151
| '''[[Contionary: yempath#Modern Standard Imperial|yempath]]'''
| rain
|-
! 014
| '''[[Contionary: ngala#Modern Standard Imperial|ngala]]'''
| when
! 083
| '''[[Contionary: doman#Modern Standard Imperial|doman]]'''
| hand
! 152
| '''[[Contionary: midli#Modern Standard Imperial|midli]]'''
| river
|-
! 015
| '''[[Contionary: thrakla#Modern Standard Imperial|thrakla]]'''
| how
! 084
| '''[[Contionary: yinkesh#Modern Standard Imperial|yinkesh]]'''
| wing
! 153
| '''[[Contionary: uthka#Modern Standard Imperial|uthka]]'''
| lake
|-
! 016
| '''[[Contionary: dlhu#Modern Standard Imperial|dlhu]]'''
| not
! 085
| '''[[Contionary: kèba#Modern Standard Imperial|kèba]]'''
| belly, abdomen
! 154
| '''[[Contionary: kespe#Modern Standard Imperial|kespe]]'''
| sea
|-
! 017
| '''[[Contionary: tash#Modern Standard Imperial|tash]]'''
| all
! 086
| '''[[Contionary: kigvezh#Modern Standard Imperial|kigvezh]]'''
| guts, entrails
! 155
| '''[[Contionary: bitlun#Modern Standard Imperial|bitlun]]'''
| salt
|-
! 018
| '''[[Contionary: gatzo#Modern Standard Imperial|gatzo]]'''
| many
! 087
| '''[[Contionary: nadzha#Modern Standard Imperial|nadzha]]'''
| neck
! 156
| '''[[Contionary: dà#Modern Standard Imperial|dà]]'''
| stone
|-
! 019
| '''[[Contionary: aggè#Modern Standard Imperial|aggè]]'''
| some
! 088
| '''[[Contionary: gesh#Modern Standard Imperial|gesh]]'''
| back
! 157
| '''[[Contionary: thè#Modern Standard Imperial|thè]]'''
| sand
|-
! 020
| '''[[Contionary: kith#Modern Standard Imperial|kith]]'''
| few
! 089
| '''[[Contionary: bhaya#Modern Standard Imperial|bhaya]]'''
| breast
! 158
| '''[[Contionary: sahal#Modern Standard Imperial|sahal]]'''
| dust
|-
! 021
| '''[[Contionary: iel#Modern Standard Imperial|iel]]'''
| other
! 090
| '''[[Contionary: thrin#Modern Standard Imperial|thrin]]'''
| heart
! 159
| '''[[Contionary: seklesh#Modern Standard Imperial|seklesh]]'''
| earth, soil, dirt
|-
! 022
| '''[[Contionary: ilè#Modern Standard Imperial|ilè]]'''
| one
! 091
| '''[[Contionary: nuyom#Modern Standard Imperial|nuyom]]'''
| liver
! 160
| '''[[Contionary: druya#Modern Standard Imperial|druya]]'''
| cloud
|-
! 023
| '''[[Contionary: umè#Modern Standard Imperial|umè]]'''
| two
! 092
| '''[[Contionary: godha#Modern Standard Imperial|godha]]'''
| to drink
! 161
| '''[[Contionary: ngeshet#Modern Standard Imperial|ngeshet]]'''
| fog, mist
|-
! 024
| '''[[Contionary: shar#Modern Standard Imperial|shar]]'''
| three
! 093
| '''[[Contionary: langa#Modern Standard Imperial|langa]]'''
| to eat
! 162
| '''[[Contionary: nash#Modern Standard Imperial|nash]]'''
| sky
|-
! 025
| '''[[Contionary: etlh#Modern Standard Imperial|etlh]]'''
| four
! 094
| '''[[Contionary: lenka#Modern Standard Imperial|lenka]]'''
| to bite
! 163
| '''[[Contionary: keishi#Modern Standard Imperial|keishi]]'''
| wind
|-
! 026
| '''[[Contionary: pikh#Modern Standard Imperial|pikh]]'''
| five
! 095
| '''[[Contionary: sanga#Modern Standard Imperial|sanga]]'''
| to suck
! 164
| '''[[Contionary: shise#Modern Standard Imperial|shise]]'''
| snow
|-
! 027
| '''[[Contionary: paen#Modern Standard Imperial|paen]]'''
| big, large
! 096
| '''[[Contionary: tlatta#Modern Standard Imperial|tlatta]]'''
| to spit
! 165
| '''[[Contionary: shviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shviè]]'''
| ice
|-
! 028
| '''[[Contionary: yetlh#Modern Standard Imperial|yetlh]]'''
| long
! 097
| '''[[Contionary: bhenkò#Modern Standard Imperial|bhenkò]]'''
| to vomit
! 166
| '''[[Contionary: veppat#Modern Standard Imperial|veppat]]'''
| smoke
|-
! 029
| '''[[Contionary: bìku#Modern Standard Imperial|bìku]]'''
| wide, broad
! 098
| '''[[Contionary: prahe#Modern Standard Imperial|prahe]]'''
| to blow
! 167
| '''[[Contionary: nuk#Modern Standard Imperial|nuk]]'''
| fire
|-
! 030
| '''[[Contionary: yadla#Modern Standard Imperial|yadla]]'''
| thick
! 099
| '''[[Contionary: harra#Modern Standard Imperial|harra]]'''
| to breathe
! 168
| '''[[Contionary: azokha#Modern Standard Imperial|azokha]]'''
| ash, ashes
|-
! 031
| '''[[Contionary: yagre#Modern Standard Imperial|yagre]]'''
| heavy
! 100
| '''[[Contionary: netha#Modern Standard Imperial|netha]]'''
| to laugh
! 169
| '''[[Contionary: paksha#Modern Standard Imperial|paksha]]'''
| burn
|-
! 032
| '''[[Contionary: kie#Modern Standard Imperial|kie]]'''
| small, little
! 101
| '''[[Contionary: veta#Modern Standard Imperial|veta]]'''
| to see
! 170
| '''[[Contionary: athri#Modern Standard Imperial|athri]]'''
| path, road, trail
|-
! 033
| '''[[Contionary: tzi#Modern Standard Imperial|tzi]]'''
| short
! 102
| '''[[Contionary: kesta#Modern Standard Imperial|kesta]]'''
| to hear
! 171
| '''[[Contionary: lhadzhè#Modern Standard Imperial|lhadzhè]]'''
| mountain
|-
! 034
| '''[[Contionary: nesi#Modern Standard Imperial|nesi]]'''
| narrow
! 103
| '''[[Contionary: shatviè#Modern Standard Imperial|shatviè]]'''
| to know
! 172
| '''[[Contionary: riggu#Modern Standard Imperial|riggu]]'''
| red
|-
! 035
| '''[[Contionary: meish#Modern Standard Imperial|meish]]'''
| thin
! 104
| '''[[Contionary: telka#Modern Standard Imperial|telka]]'''
| to think
! 173
| '''[[Contionary: merri#Modern Standard Imperial|merri]]'''
| green
|-
! 036
| '''[[Contionary: paletsh#Modern Standard Imperial|paletsh]]'''
| woman
! 105
| '''[[Contionary: falta#Modern Standard Imperial|falta]]'''
| to smell
! 174
| '''[[Contionary: thibre#Modern Standard Imperial|thibre]]'''
| yellow
|-
! 037
| '''[[Contionary: rosha#Modern Standard Imperial|rosha]]'''
| man
! 106
| '''[[Contionary: krakha#Modern Standard Imperial|krakha]]'''
| to fear
! 175
| '''[[Contionary: lhasi#Modern Standard Imperial|lhasi]]'''
| white
|-
! 038
| '''[[Contionary: tè#Modern Standard Imperial|tè]]'''
| person
! 107
| '''[[Contionary: gendzha#Modern Standard Imperial|gendzha]]'''
| to sleep
! 176
| '''[[Contionary: geka#Modern Standard Imperial|geka]]'''
| black
|-
! 039
| '''[[Contionary: pàn#Modern Standard Imperial|pàn]]'''
| child
! 108
| '''[[Contionary: budhra#Modern Standard Imperial|budhra]]'''
| to live
! 177
| '''[[Contionary: naril#Modern Standard Imperial|naril]]'''
| night
|-
! 040
| '''[[Contionary: ebreth#Modern Standard Imperial|ebreth]]'''
| wife
! 109
| '''[[Contionary: skobha#Modern Standard Imperial|skobha]]'''
| to die
! 178
| '''[[Contionary: dashi#Modern Standard Imperial|dashi]]'''
| day
|-
! 041
| '''[[Contionary: lòga#Modern Standard Imperial|lòga]]'''
| husband
! 110
| '''[[Contionary: lurka#Modern Standard Imperial|lurka]]'''
| to kill
! 179
| '''[[Contionary: lavani#Modern Standard Imperial|lavani]]'''
| year
|-
! 042
| '''[[Contionary: elin#Modern Standard Imperial|elin]]'''
| mother
! 111
| '''[[Contionary: voka#Modern Standard Imperial|voka]]'''
| to fight
! 180
| '''[[Contionary: theda#Modern Standard Imperial|theda]]'''
| hot (weather)
|-
! 043
| '''[[Contionary: òla#Modern Standard Imperial|òla]]'''
| father
! 112
| '''[[Contionary: arradae#Modern Standard Imperial|arradae]]'''
| to hunt
! 181
| '''[[Contionary: amedi#Modern Standard Imperial|amedi]]'''
| cold
|-
! 044
| '''[[Contionary: shi#Modern Standard Imperial|shi]]'''
| animal
! 113
| '''[[Contionary: sakha#Modern Standard Imperial|sakha]]'''
| to hit
! 182
| '''[[Contionary: pisash#Modern Standard Imperial|pisash]]'''
| full
|-
! 045
| '''[[Contionary: reshte#Modern Standard Imperial|reshte]]'''
| fish
! 114
| '''[[Contionary: shaka#Modern Standard Imperial|shaka]]'''
| to cut
! 183
| '''[[Contionary: raebh#Modern Standard Imperial|raebh]]'''
| new
|-
! 046
| '''[[Contionary: yaral#Modern Standard Imperial|yaral]]'''
| bird
! 115
| '''[[Contionary: khegriè#Modern Standard Imperial|khegriè]]'''
| to split
! 184
| '''[[Contionary: kopra#Modern Standard Imperial|kopra]]'''
| old
|-
! 047
| '''[[Contionary: bagè#Modern Standard Imperial|bagè]]'''
| dog
! 116
| '''[[Contionary: ditsha#Modern Standard Imperial|ditsha]]'''
| to stab, to pierce
! 185
| '''[[Contionary: savati#Modern Standard Imperial|savati]]'''
| good
|-
! 048
| '''[[Contionary: svì#Modern Standard Imperial|svì]]'''
| louse
! 117
| '''[[Contionary: dlhage#Modern Standard Imperial|dlhage]]'''
| to scratch
! 186
| '''[[Contionary: kash#Modern Standard Imperial|kash]]'''
| bad
|-
! 049
| '''[[Contionary: dlaka#Modern Standard Imperial|dlaka]]'''
| snake
! 118
| '''[[Contionary: tvanda#Modern Standard Imperial|tvanda]]'''
| to dig
! 187
| '''[[Contionary: yetsh#Modern Standard Imperial|yetsh]]'''
| rotten
|-
! 050
| '''[[Contionary: thombir#Modern Standard Imperial|thombir]]'''
| worm
! 119
| '''[[Contionary: rabba#Modern Standard Imperial|rabba]]'''
| to swim
! 188
| '''[[Contionary: khìth#Modern Standard Imperial|khìth]]'''
| dirty
|-
! 051
| '''[[Contionary: thule#Modern Standard Imperial|thule]]'''
| tree
! 120
| '''[[Contionary: thruga#Modern Standard Imperial|thruga]]'''
| to fly
! 189
| '''[[Contionary: gata#Modern Standard Imperial|gata]]'''
| straight
|-
! 052
| '''[[Contionary: yathrèk#Modern Standard Imperial|yathrèk]]'''
| forest, woods
! 121
| '''[[Contionary: vanda#Modern Standard Imperial|vanda]]'''
| to walk
! 190
| '''[[Contionary: vòbh#Modern Standard Imperial|vòbh]]'''
| round
|-
! 053
| '''[[Contionary: yakèt#Modern Standard Imperial|yakèt]]'''
| stick
! 122
| '''[[Contionary: thuri#Modern Standard Imperial|thuri]]'''
| come
! 191
| '''[[Contionary: thikhe#Modern Standard Imperial|thikhe]]'''
| sharp
|-
! 054
| '''[[Contionary: nithren#Modern Standard Imperial|nithren]]'''
| fruit
! 123
| '''[[Contionary: nubhi#Modern Standard Imperial|nubhi]]'''
| to lie (down)
! 192
| '''[[Contionary: rog#Modern Standard Imperial|rog]]'''
| dull
|-
! 055
| '''[[Contionary: shukh#Modern Standard Imperial|shukh]]'''
| seed
! 124
| '''[[Contionary: darrana#Modern Standard Imperial|darrana]]'''
| to sit
! 193
| '''[[Contionary: sheris#Modern Standard Imperial|sheris]]'''
| smooth
|-
! 056
| '''[[Contionary: din#Modern Standard Imperial|din]]'''
| leaf
! 125
| '''[[Contionary: eska#Modern Standard Imperial|eska]]'''
| to stand
! 194
| '''[[Contionary: kera#Modern Standard Imperial|kera]]'''
| wet
|-
! 057
| '''[[Contionary: kazin#Modern Standard Imperial|kazin]]'''
| root
! 126
| '''[[Contionary: tviska#Modern Standard Imperial|tviska]]'''
| to turn
! 195
| '''[[Contionary: akram#Modern Standard Imperial|akram]]'''
| dry
|-
! 058
| '''[[Contionary: nuis#Modern Standard Imperial|nuis]]'''
| bark (of tree)
! 127
| '''[[Contionary: phamba#Modern Standard Imperial|phamba]]'''
| to fall
! 196
| '''[[Contionary: yadì#Modern Standard Imperial|yadì]]'''
| correct, right
|-
! 059
| '''[[Contionary: thuman#Modern Standard Imperial|thuman]]'''
| flower
! 128
| '''[[Contionary: satha#Modern Standard Imperial|satha]]'''
| to give
! 197
| '''[[Contionary: dzhesa#Modern Standard Imperial|dzhesa]]'''
| near
|-
! 060
| '''[[Contionary: athe#Modern Standard Imperial|athe]]'''
| grass
! 129
| '''[[Contionary: korda#Modern Standard Imperial|korda]]'''
| to hold
! 198
| '''[[Contionary: tlaste#Modern Standard Imperial|tlaste]]'''
| far
|-
! 061
| '''[[Contionary: fortal#Modern Standard Imperial|fortal]]'''
| rope
! 130
| '''[[Contionary: kveda#Modern Standard Imperial|kveda]]'''
| to squeeze
! 199
| '''[[Contionary: dhiun#Modern Standard Imperial|dhiun]]'''
| right (hand)
|-
! 062
| '''[[Contionary: toma#Modern Standard Imperial|toma]]'''
| skin
! 131
| '''[[Contionary: bìna#Modern Standard Imperial|bìna]]'''
| to rub
! 200
| '''[[Contionary: yatsù#Modern Standard Imperial|yatsù]]'''
| left (hand)
|-
! 063
| '''[[Contionary: rundzhat#Modern Standard Imperial|rundzhat]]'''
| flesh, meat
! 132
| '''[[Contionary: nodha#Modern Standard Imperial|nodha]]'''
| to wash
! 201
| '''[[Contionary: ti#Modern Standard Imperial|ti]]'''
| at
|-
! 064
| '''[[Contionary: tadlash#Modern Standard Imperial|tadlash]]'''
| blood
! 133
| '''[[Contionary: ridva#Modern Standard Imperial|ridva]]'''
| to wipe
! 202
| '''[[Contionary: lu#Modern Standard Imperial|lu]]'''
| in
|-
! 065
| '''[[Contionary: ikva#Modern Standard Imperial|ikva]]'''
| bone
! 134
| '''[[Contionary: kuna#Modern Standard Imperial|kuna]]'''
| to pull
! 203
| '''[[Contionary: thie#Modern Standard Imperial|thie]]'''
| with
|-
! 066
| '''[[Contionary: grabh#Modern Standard Imperial|grabh]]'''
| grease, fat
! 135
| '''[[Contionary: sidlha#Modern Standard Imperial|sidlha]]'''
| to push
! 204
| '''[[Contionary: ya#Modern Standard Imperial|ya]]'''
| and
|-
! 067
| '''[[Contionary: ngusha#Modern Standard Imperial|ngusha]]'''
| egg
! 136
| '''[[Contionary: vaka#Modern Standard Imperial|vaka]]'''
| to throw
! 205
| '''[[Contionary: dzhe#Modern Standard Imperial|dzhe]]'''
| if
|-
! 068
| '''[[Contionary: dèt#Modern Standard Imperial|dèt]]'''
| horn
! 137
| '''[[Contionary: durga#Modern Standard Imperial|durga]]'''
| to tie, bind
! 206
| '''[[Contionary: tritsha#Modern Standard Imperial|tritsha]]'''
| because
|-
! 069
| '''[[Contionary: kadu#Modern Standard Imperial|kadu]]'''
| tail
! 138
| '''[[Contionary: hovae#Modern Standard Imperial|hovae]]'''
| to sew
! 207
| '''[[Contionary: arel#Modern Standard Imperial|arel]]'''
| name
|}
Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/268590...275700"

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