Behru cesik: Difference between revisions

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'''Behru Cesik''' (meaning ''Behru way of speaking'') is the highest language of the Behru empire. The stage of the language represented in this article is that spoken when the empire conquered the Yamazi dynasty of Winanda and began imposing its culture over a wide area.
 
 
[[File:Behruname.jpg|thumb|Béhru cesik shúune viine yoone hok.]]
 
 
 
 
 
==Setting==
Behru cesik (a combination of Behru, an ethnonym, and cesik, meaning "way of speaking"), is the official language of the 7 billion denizens of the Behru empire, which expands across the Behru and Maidn river valleys (exluding the maritime regions ravaged by the sea of endless storms) and the fertile plains atop the plateau of the Jisok outcropping. The language represented in this article is that of the empire 4000 years after its founding, when Behru Cesik was first widely standardized.
 
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Phonemes===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable article-table" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
All Behru consonants except /h/ have voiced and voiceless counterparts. Voiceless consonants are usually weakly aspirated, the voiceless sonorants strongly so. Voiceless consonants are listed after their voiced counterparts in the table. Romanization is listed in '''Bold '''below the ipa. Romanization will be used in all sections of the article other than the phonology section.
! style="width: 68px; "|
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
|+Consonants (muhlámaleslzilíi)
! style="width: 68px; " |Dental
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar
! style="width: 68px; " |Uvular
! style="width: 68px; " |Pharyngeal
|-
|-
! style="" |Nasal
! scope="row"|
|m hm
! scope="col"|Labial (Kálihi)
|n hn
! scope="col"|Alveolar (jüdíixáahniík)
|
! scope="col"|Post alveolar (jüdíixëhnémihi)
|
! scope="col"|Palato-alveolar (jüdíixáansingerihi)
|ñ hñ
! scope="col"|Palatal (singerihi)
|ng hng
! scope="col"|Velar (singezóok)
|
! scope="col"|Glottal (mákughétóok)
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Plosive
! scope="row"|Plosive (zotozilíi)
|p b
|t d
|
|
p b
'''p b'''
|
|
|c j
t d
|k g
 
'''t d'''
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Fricative
|f v
|s z
|
|
|
|
|sh zh
g k
|x gh
 
|
'''g k'''
|
|
h
'''h'''
|-
|-
! style="" |Affricate
! scope="row"| Afrricate (zotaxehmozilíi)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tɕ dʑ
'''c  j'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Approximant
! scope="row"|Fricative (xehmozilíil)
|w hw
|
|
|
|hy
|
|h
|
|-
! style="" |Trill
|
|
|
ɸ β
'''f v'''
|
|
s z
'''s z'''
|
|
|
|
ɕ  ʑ
'''sh zh'''
|
|
|
|
x ɣ
'''x gh'''
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Flap or tap
! scope="row"|Nasal (dzátacetozilíi)
|
|
|
m m̥ʰ
'''m hm'''
|
|
n n̥ʰ
'''n hn'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
ɲ  ɲ̥ʰ
'''ñ hñ'''
|
|
ŋ    ŋ̥ʰ
'''ng hng'''
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Lateral fric.
! scope="row"|Approximant (manjiuzilíi)
|
|
|
w w̥ʰ
'''w hw'''
|
|
l l̥ʰ
'''l hl'''
|
|
r r̥ʰ
'''r hr'''
|
|
|
|
j j̥ʰ
'''y hy'''
|
|
|
|
|}
Behru has 4 base vowels, a, ɛ, u, and o, whose qualities change based on length and stress. Each vowel has 3 forms, long, short, and reduced. The vowel centralizes when it reduces, a and o reduce to ə̆, u reduces to ʊ, ɛ reduces to  ɪ̆. The vowel ɛ uniquely changes to i: when lengthened. As before, romanized forms are marked in the chart. In addition, vowels may carry a high tone or a low tone, a high tone is marked with an acute, e.g., á, í, úu, óo. Low tone is unmarked. Reduced vowels are always low tone, even if derived from an originally high toned vowel.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
|+Vowels (lámozilíi)
|-
|-
! style="" |Lateral app.
! scope="row"|
|
! scope="col"|Front
|
! scope="col"|Front-mid
|l lh
! scope="col"|Mid
|r hr
! scope="col"|Mid-back
|
! scope="col"|Back
|
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Lateral flap
! scope="row"|Close
|
|
|
|
|
i:
'''ii '''
|
|
ɪ̆
'''i'''
|
|
|
|
ʊ̆
'''ü'''
|
|
|}
u u:


===Vowels===
'''uu u'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable article-table" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Front
! style="width: 90px; " |Near-front
! style="width: 90px; " |Central
! style="width: 90px; " |Near-back
! style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
|-
! style="" |Close
! scope="row"|Mid
|i
|
|
ɛ
'''e'''
|
|
|
|
|u
ə̆
|-
 
! style="" |Near-close
'''ë'''
|e
|î
|
|
|ü
|
|
o o:
'''oo o'''
|-
|-
! style="" |Close-mid
! scope="row"|Open
|
|
|
a: a
|
 
|
'''aa a'''
|
|-
! style="" |Mid
|
|
|ë
|
|o
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Near-open
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Open
|a
|
|
|
|
Line 185: Line 169:
|}
|}


<!--Write about the alphabet (consonants and vowels) and explain the orthography along with the phonotactics of the language, it is suggested to do this before anything.  Use the International Phonetic Alphabet to name sounds in your language. If you are unsure on the use of the IPA you could visit : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet and read up, it helps quite a lot. -->


==Phonotactics==
===Phonotactical restraints and Sandhi===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that work and are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is a consonant cluster in English. -->
'''Rule 1 '''


All Behru free morphemes of native origin consist of a 2 syllable root with a maximum structure stop-fricative-approximant-vowel/syllabic l or r-consonant-vowel. Bound morphemes are permitted to have a reduced structure, so long as they start witha consonant should they be allowed to occur word initially. All syllables must start with a consonant. Alll free roots except particles and nouns in the agent case singular have a suffix of some sort indicating their grammatical role in the sentence.
All''' '''syllables start with 1 to 4 consonants and contain only 1 vowel, no more, no less.
===Vowels===


All roots that can exist unbound, along with several bound roots, hold a tone. This tone may be either a high ´tone like in lé, or a low tone le (low tone is unmarked). A high tone is only found in noun, verb, and particle roots, it is never found on the suffixes with the exception of several toneshift sandhi rules.  In addition, a vowel may be of one of 3 "strengths". A weak vowel is reduced and centralized, and may carry have a high tone. A medium vowel is clearly pronounced but clipped in length. A strong vowel is held out in length. Some roots contain the sequence CV l/r C(V). The combination of a vowel and and l and r usually fuse in an unusual way.
j̥ʰa, mút, cen, xoo, ɲɛ are all permitted.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|+Vowel strength
|-
! scope="row"|Weak
! scope="col"|ë
! scope="col"|ë
! scope="col"|i
! scope="col"|ü
! scope="col"|l
! scope="col"|r
|-
! scope="row"|Strong
! scope="col"|a
! scope="col"|o
! scope="col"|e
! scope="col"|u
! scope="col"|ol, el*
! scope="col"|ar, er*
|-
! scope="row"|Prolonged
! scope="col"|aa
! scope="col"|oo
! scope="col"|ii
! scope="col"|uu
! scope="col"|ul, il*
! scope="col"|or, ir*
|}
* roots containing l or r may strengthen according to two different series.


===Sandhi===
ɛt, u and itɕ are not permitted due to not having an initial consonant.
Sandhi in behru can be divided into two categories, tone sandhi and consonant sandhi. Vowel sandhi only occurs word internally, as all morphemes that can occur at the front of a word start with consonants.
====Consonant sandhi====
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 1: first consonant agrees with second consonant in voice if both are stops or fricatives
|-
! scope="col"|k,x,c,sh,t,s,p,f
! scope="col"|when followed by g,gh,j,zh,d,z,b,v
! scope="col"|become g,gh,j,zh,d,z,b,v
|}
n assimilates in the point of articulation of the following consonants
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
! scope="col"|n
! scope="col"|when followed by k,g,x,gh ng
! scope="col"|becomes ng
|-
! scope="col"|n
! scope="col"|when followed by c,j,sh,zh,ñ
! scope="col"|becomes ñ
|-
! scope="col"|n
! scope="col"|when followed by p,b,f,v,m
! scope="col"|becomes m
|}
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 3: palatalization of dental consonants
|-
! scope="col"|t,d,s,z
! scope="col"|when followed by y
! scope="col"|combine with y to become c,j,sh,zh
|}


sɛun, lai, and ɣə̆if are not permitted due to having 2 vowels.


tpt, xn, mj̥ʰ are not permitted due to having no vowels.


{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
''*exception: kl̥t and zrn are permitted because /l/ and /r/ may optionally function as reduced vowels.
|+Rule 4: y and w dissimilate before matching vowels
|-
! scope="col"|y
! scope="col"|when followed by i
! scope="col"|becomes zh
|-
! scope="col"|w
! scope="col"|when followed by u
! scope="col"|becomes v
|}
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 5: combining palatal and dental sounds
|-
! scope="col"|s,sh,t
! scope="col"|when followed by sh
! scope="col"|combines with sh to become c
|-
! scope="col"|z,zh,d
! scope="col"|when followed by zh
! scope="col"|combines with zh to become j
|}
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 6: h weakens unvoiced stops
|-
! scope="col"|k,c,t,p
! scope="col"|when followed by h (only if h is in isolation)
! scope="col"|combine with h to become x,sh,s,f
|}
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+rule 7: h aspirates liquid and nasal consonants
|-
! scope="col"|y,r,l,w,ng,ñ,n,m
! scope="col"|when followed by h
! scope="col"|become hy,hr,hl,hw,hng,hñ,hn,hm
|}
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 8: aspirated liquids and nasals devoice preceding stops and fricatives
|-
! scope="col"|g,gh,j,zh,d,z,b,v
! scope="col"|when followed by h (only if h is in isolation)
! scope="col"|
become p,x,c,sh,t,s,p,f, and the h disappears
|}
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 9: w and y become v and zh when not followed by vowels, and vice versa
|-
! scope="col"|w and y
! scope="col"|
when followed by another consonant


and preceded by a consonant
'''Rule 2 '''
! scope="col"|become u and i
|}


All consonants in a consonant cluster must agree in voicing if they do not, the voicing of the first consonant of the second syllable controls the voicing.
kx, tɸ, n̥ts, bw, dɣy and m̥y̥ʰ are all permitted due to all members of the cluster agreeing in voice.
sʊ̆ɸk+zwáan must be changed to sʊ̆βgzwáan because they do not agree in voicing. As z is the first consonant of the second syllable and is voiced, it changes all unvoiced consonants in the cluster to voiced, changing k to g and ɸ to β
l̥ʰən+ksɛ must become l̥ʰən̥ksɛ, because k, the first consonant of the second syllable, is unvoiced, changing the voiced n to voiceless n̥.


{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
'''Rule 3'''
|+Rule 10: Progressive devoicing
|-
! scope="col"|k, p, t, c, s, sh, f, x
! scope="col"|When in contact with any liquid nasal
! scope="col"|Devoice said liquid or nasal, eg; k+n = khn, m+t=hmt
|}
*note: The effects of rule 10 are never written, as they can always be determined, samt will always be pronounced as |sahmt|, no rules can reverse this.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 11: regressive devoicing
|-
! scope="col"|g, b, d
! scope="col"|When followed by an aspirant liquid or nasal directly, or if followed seperated from the aspirant by a short vowel
! scope="col"|become k, p, t, eg; g+hy=ky, bu+hm+ puhm, but daa+ hn doesn't equal taahn, because of the long vowel
|}
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 12: intervocalic voicing
|-
! scope="col"|k, t, p, even if preceded by a nasal or fricative
! scope="col"|Voice between two vowels. If a second consonant lies before, this consonant is also voiced. However, if a consonant lies after, this rule does not aplly
! scope="col"|aka becomes aga, efto becomes evdo, ampi becomes ambi, but akya deos not become agya
|}
 
 
Notes: the only rules which can change the voicing of c and j are rules 2 and 7.
 
Only the rules 1, 2, 6, 7, and 8 occur across word boundaries. Final consonants affected by rules 6 and 7 across word boundaries double. The h doesn't dissapear of rule 8 occurs across word boundaries.
 
====Vowel Sandhi====
 
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|+Rule 1: vowels have consonants inserted after or become consonants themselves when followed by other vowels
|-
! scope="col"|o,u
! scope="col"|when followed by e,i,a,o
! scope="col"|become ow,w
|-
! scope="col"|o,u
! scope="col"|when followed by u,ü
! scope="col"|become ov,v
|-
! scope="col"|e,i
! scope="col"|when followed by a,o,u,ü,e
! scope="col"|become ey,y
|-
! scope="col"|e,i
! scope="col"|when followed by i
! scope="col"|become ezh,zh
|-
! scope="col"|a
! scope="col"|when followed by any vowel
! scope="col"|dissapears
|-
! scope="col"|aa
! scope="col"|when followed by any vowel
! scope="col"|becomes aah
|}
 
====Tone Sandhi====
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
! scope="col"|
If a vowel with a tone is weakened
 
múk to mügii
! scope="col"|
The tone is shifted to the following syllable
 
mügíi
|-
! scope="col"|
If a vowel with a tone is converted into a consonant
 
like hí+e hye
! scope="col"|The tone is shifted to the following syllable hyé
|}
 
==Orthography==
Behru romanized orthography matches the symbols given in the phonology section. Sandhi is indicated always in both written systems. The Behru native writing system is an alphabet, with symbols for vowels, consonants, vowel strength and tone arranged into syllabic blocks, written up to down, left to right. Pictures of these will be uploaded later.
 
==Basic Grammar==
{{agreement
|VerbGender = no
|VerbCases = no
|VerbNumber = yes
|VerbTenses = yes
|VerbPerson = yes
|VerbMoods = no
|VerbVoices = yes
 
|NounGender = no
|NounCases = yes
|NounNumber = yes
|NounTenses = no
|NounPerson = no
|NounMoods = no
|NounVoices = yes
 
|AdjectiveGender = no
|AdjectiveCases = no
|AdjectiveNumber = yes
|AdjectiveTenses = yes
|AdjectivePerson = no
|AdjectiveMoods = yes
|AdjectiveVoices = yes
 
|NumberGender = no
|NumberCases = no
|NumberNumber = no
|NumberTenses = no
|NumberPerson = no
|NumberMoods = no
|NumberVoices = no
 
|ParticipleGender = no
|ParticipleCases = no
|ParticipleNumber = yes
|ParticipleTenses = yes
|ParticiplePerson = no
|ParticipleMoods = yes
|ParticipleVoices = yes
 
|AdverbGender = no
|AdverbCases = no
|AdverbNumber = no
|AdverbTenses = no
|AdverbPerson = no
|AdverbMoods = no
|AdverbVoices = no


|PronounGender = no
Syllable initial consonant clusters are permitted, they may consist at most
|PronounCases = yes
|PronounNumber = yes
|PronounTenses = no
|PronounPerson = yes
|PronounMoods = no
|PronounVoices = yes
 
|AdpositionGender = no
|AdpositionCases = no
|AdpositionNumber = no
|AdpositionTenses = no
|AdpositionPerson = no
|AdpositionMoods = no
|AdpositionVoices = no
 
|ArticleGender = no
|ArticleCases = no
|ArticleNumber = no
|ArticleTenses = no
|ArticlePerson = no
|ArticleMoods = no
|ArticleVoices = no
 
|ParticleGender = no
|ParticleCases = no
|ParticleNumber = no
|ParticleTenses = no
|ParticlePerson = no
|ParticleMoods = no
|ParticleVoices = no
}}Behru in the modern day is highly fusional, although the language of old, in the days of empire, was far more agglutinative. This older stage of the language is popular in literature, but this article primarily focuses on the Hedri colloquial. All root morphemes of the language can be split into 4 groups. All free morphemes are part of onne of 3 parts of speech, verb, noun, or particle. Adjectives and adverbs do not exist as a part of speech, they can exist as either prefixes or derived from verbs. The language is most commonly uses a subject object verb word order, but there are no strict rules on word order in most sentences. The language is exclusively head final, with all modifiers placed before the head. The verb always comes a finally when it is the head of a clause, and is the only portion of the sentence that may not be omitted under any circumstances.
===Morphemes===
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
=====Free=====
! scope="col"|Bound
|-
|Semantemes
|Verbs, Nouns
|adjectival prefixes, adverbial prefixes, derivational sufixes
|-
|Grammemes
|Grammatical particles
|grammatical sufixes, positional sufixes, grammatical infixes
|}


==Noun Morphology==
Stop + Fricative + Liquid (/l/ or /r/) + /w/ or /j/, or


Nasal+ /w/ or /j/ in that order.


kfr̥j̥ is permitted as it contains a stop fricative, liquid, and  /j/ in the right order, and all consonants agree in voicing, as specified in rule two.
kn̥ and ŋr are not permitted as nasals may not coexist with stops, fricatives, or liquids in consonant clusters.
skj̥ is not permitted as fricatives may not precede stops,
sɲ̥ is not permitted as fricatives may not precede nasals.
mj is permitted as /j/ may come after a nasal.
zlw is permitted as all constituents are in the right order, fricative>liquid> /w/ or /y/
wzl and lzw are not, however, they are not in the right order.
βj is permitted, the contituents are in the right order and of the right type.
'''
Rule 4'''
any alveolar consonant followed by /j/ is transformed to its palatal counterpart.
tj̥ and dj become tɕ and dʑ respectively.
sj̥ and zj become ɕ and ʑ respectively
nj and n̥j̥ʰ become ɲ and ɲ̥ʰ respectively.


'''Rule 5 '''
The combinations /ji:/ and /jɪ/ are always converted to /ʑi:/ and /ʑɪ/ respectively. In the same manner, /wʊ/ and /wu:/ are always converted to /βʊ/ and /βu:/ respectively. This rule overides rule 3, the syllable /zlji:/ will be converted to /zlʑi:/ even though /zlʑ/ is otherwise forbidden at the beginning of a syllable due to having a fricative after a liquid. The /β/ and /ʑ/ will be converted into /ɸ/ and /ɕ/ if it would violated rule 2, /pl̥w̥ʰʊ/ would be converted to /pl̥ɸʊ/, not /pl̥βʊ/, /kj̥i:/ to /kɕi:/, not /kʑi:/.
'''
Rule 6'''
The only consonants that may occur syllable finally are t/d, p/b/, ɸ/β, k/g, n/n̥, m/m̥, ɲ/ɲ̥, ŋ/ŋ̥, and ɕ/ʑ. Voicing is not distinguished in the final position. Final stops and fricatives may have nasals preceding them , and ɕ/ʑ and ɸ/βmay precede any one of the others(but not eachother). Two nasals may not occur in a row in these syllables.
raβn is a permitted syllable, but raβʑ is not. ramβ is  permitted. l̥̥ʰʊm̥k is permitted, l̥ʰumn is not. kaβʑ and kaʑβ are not permitted, ʑ and β may not be together at the end of a syllable.
'''Rule 7'''
A sequence of vowels is always interrupted by glides and or  has the first vowel deleted to avoid violating rule 1. The change  depends on the first vowel, ɛ, ɪ, and ii insert /j/ in a sequence of vowels. /ɪ/ is deleted when /j/ is inserted. uu, u, o, and ʊ insert /w/ in a sequence of vowels. /u/ and /ʊ/ are deleted when /w/ is inserted.
kaɛ would become kɛ
kau would become ku
kɛɛ would become kɛjɛ
kɪo: would become kjo:
ki:o would become ki:jo
ku:a would become ku:wa
kua and kʊa would both become kwa
kɛi: would become kɛji:, which would then become kɛʑi: due to rule 5
kʊu and kuu would both become kwu, which would then become kβu due to rule 5, and then kɸu due to rule 1.
sɪɪ would become sjɪ due to rule 5, which would then become ɕi due to rule 4.


===Principle parts of a Behru noun.===
==Nouns==
====Simple consonant variation nouns====
Behru nouns delcine for 12 cases and 3 numbers. The 12 cases can be grouped into the simple cases, Nominative, Causative, Ablative, Benefactive, Posessive, Instrumental, Adessive, Locative, and Dative, and the complex cases, Accusative, Genitive, and Comparative. The complex cases use a different stem than simple cases.
A behru noun has 3 principle parts, the default, weak, and plural forms. The plural form is used in the plural (obviously), and the weak form is used in the patient, genitive, possesive, comparative, and compound cases.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="margin: 0px auto;"
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Declension of Vowel deleting nouns
|+Principle Behru nouns ending in a voiceless stop
|-
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Default
! scope="col"|Weak
! scope="col"|Plural
|-
! scope="row"|Type 1
|múk, let, ksac, lóp
|mügáa, lidaa, ksëcaa, lëbáa
|múuge, liide, ksaaje, lóobe
|-
! scope="row"|Type 2
|lart, kélc, náp, cwenk
|lrdii, klcíi, nëbíi, cwin'gii
|lorje, kíljie, náabye, cwiin'gye
|-
! scope="row"|Type 3
|xámp, zholt, ghúc, juk
|xëmbúu, zhlduu, ghücúu, jüguu
|xáambwe, zhuldwe, ghúujwe, juugwe
|}
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Simple variation vowel nouns
|-
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
Default
múki, ''dog-like animal''
! scope="col"|Weak
! scope="col"|Plural
|-
|lube, nago, mwaco, xéde, sráje
|lübii, nëgoo, mwëcoo, xidíi, srëjíi
|luubeye, naagowe, mwaacowe, xíideye, sráajeye
|}


====Complex variation nouns====
(i-type )
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|+Palatal nouns
|-
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|Default
ratu, ''wind''
! scope="col"|Weak
! scope="col"|Plural
|-
|Voiced stop base Type 1
|perji, ñélji, yúgi, tóbi
|prjiaa, ñljiáa, yügyáa, tëbyáa
|piirjrye, ñíljlye, yúugïngye, tóobüvye
|-
|2
|náji, húji, tségi, tólbi
|nëjjíi, hüjjíi, tsïgzhíi, tlbzhíi
|náajrye, húujlye, tsíigïngye, túlbüvye
|-
|3
|hloji, xworji, ryagi,  vyúbi
|hlëjiuu, xwrjiuu, ryëgyuu, vyübyúu
|hloojrye, xwurdlye, ryaagïngye, vyúubüvye
|-
|Voiceless base type 1
|gzhéci, dloci, numgi, sólbi
|ghiciáa, dlëcaa, nümkyaa, slpyáa
|ghzíicrhye, dlootlhye, nuumkïhngye, súupüfye
|-
|2
|móbi
|mëpshíi
|móopüfye
|-
|3
|pláci
|plëcáa
|pláatlhye
|}
 
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Labial nouns
|-
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|Default
! scope="col"|Weak
! scope="col"|PLural
|-
|Voiced 1
|ráju
|rëjwáa
|ráajrwe
|-
|2
|hwogu
|hwëgwii
|hwoogüngwe
|-
|3
|sandu
|sëndvuu
|saandlwe
|-
|Voicless 1
|zlecu
|zlicwaa
|zliicrhwe
|-
|2
|hméldu
|hmltwíi
|hmíltlwe
|-
|3
|shúbu
|shüpfúu
|shúupüfwe
|}
 
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Historically ejective nouns
|-
! scope="col"|Default
! scope="col"|Weak
! scope="col"|Plural
|-
|frábe, lyóndi, shriju, tógo
|frëbíi, lyëndíi, shrijuu, tëgóo
|fráabüveye, lyóondlye, shriijrwe, tóogëngowe
|}


 
(u-type )
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Intervocal stop nouns
|-
! scope="col"|Default
! scope="col"|Weak
! scope="col"|Plural
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|tádo, kluge
ñárce, sábo
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|tëdóo, klügii
ñërcíi, sëbóo
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|táadowe, kluugeye
ñórjeye, sáabowe
|}
 
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|+Fricative nouns
|-
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|Default
ksopa, ''shelf''
! scope="col"|Weak
! scope="col"|Plural
|-
|Simple voiceless
|dvasa, tómfa, rwéshu, zumxe
|dvësaa, tëmfáa, rwïsháa, zümxaa
|dvaatse, tóompfe, rwíiccwe, zuumkkeye
|-
|Complex voiceless
|clúso, kólfe, bváfi, hyaxe
|clüsóo, klfíi, bvëfii, hyëxii
|clúutlhowe, kúlpüfeye, bváa
|-
|Voiced
|tevo, ñúzo, lazhe
|tivoo, ñüzóo, lëzhii
|
tiivüvowe, ñúuzlowe,


laazhreye
(a-type)
|}
 
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|+Liquid and nasal nouns (4 parts)
|-
|-
! scope="col"|Default consonant
! scope="row"|Nominative
! scope="col"|Default Vowel
|múkësh
! scope="col"|Weak
|ratët
! scope="col"|Plural
|ksopët
|-
|shúun, ryaam, pshiing
|shúnz, ryamv, pshen'g
|shüné, ryëmé, pshingé
|shúunde, ryaambe, pshiin'ge
|-
|jáal, kóor
|jáls, kórsh
|jëlé, këré
|jáahle, kóohre
|}
 
===Basic endings===
Endings using the first principle part
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|-
! scope="row"|
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" scope="col"|Singular
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" scope="col"|Paucal
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Stop Consonant/schwa
! scope="col"|Vowel
! scope="col"|Stop Consonant/schwa
! scope="col"|Vowel
|-
! scope="row"|Agent
| -
| -
|ii, uu
|zh, v
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
! scope="row"|Causative
|ëye
|múkye
|ye
|ratúsh
|iizhe, uuve
|ksopé
|zhazh, vazh
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
! scope="row"|Ablative
|ehn
|múking
|kihn
|ratung
|iiñi, uum
|ksopang
|ñzh, ma
|-
! scope="row"|Comitative
|ent
|kint
|iiñzhu, uumzhu
|ñzhu, mt
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Benefactive
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|empi
|múkimpi (múki-kimpi)
|kimpi
|ratwimpi
|iiñibi, uumpi
|ksopempi
|ñip, map
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Vialis
! scope="row"|Posessive
|or
|múkihno (múki-kihno)
|vr
|ratwihno
|iiren, uuren
|ksopehno
|zhrn, vrn
|-
! scope="row"|Adessive
|múkicra (múki-kicra)
|ratwicra
|ksopecra
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Instrumental
! scope="row"|Instrumental
|l
|múkl
|l
|rato
|iyan, uwan
|ksopo
|zhën, vën
|-
! scope="row"|Adessive
|mazh
|mazh
|iimi, uumi
|zhmi, vmi
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Locative
! scope="row"|Locative
|hi
|múxi (múk-hi)
|hi
|raswi (rat-hwi)
|iishi, uushi
|ksofi (ksop-hi)
|zhi, vi
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Dative
! scope="row"|Dative
|ci
|múkci
|ci
|ratcwi
|iic, uuc
|ksopci
|shc, fc
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Patientive
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
|*see 2
|múkíi-
|yan, wan
|raswíi-
|*see 2
|ksopégii-
|zhan, van
|-
! scope="row"|Posessive
|*see 2
|ino, uno
|*see 2
|zhño, vno
|-
! scope="row"|Comparative
|*see 2
|ihno, uhno
|*see 2
|shno, fno
|-
! scope="row"|Genitive/ Combining stem
|*see 2
|in, un
|*see 2
|zhñi, vnë
|}
These endings can be added to the 1st prinicple part of the noun using sandhi. One thing must be noted for consonant nouns, nouns ending in a simple voiceless stop will often have a semivowel inserted between the consonant and the ending. Which semivowel is inserted requires knowledge of the second principle part, nouns ending in an ii, like mügíi, will have a y inserted, nouns ending in an uu will hae a w inserted. Nouns ending in aa have nothing inserted. Therefore, the noun múk, mügíi, múugye, will have a y inserted in the ablative (múkyehn), as that ending starts with the vowel e, and múk's second principle part ends in ii.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Endings using the second principle part
|-
! scope="col"|Patientive
! scope="col"|ha
|-
|Possessive
|ng
|-
|Comparative
|ho
|-
|Genitive/combining stem
| -
|}
|}




{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected"
 
|+Endings using the third principle part
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Declension of vowel holding nouns
|-
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Consonant
! scope="col"|myéngu ''water''
! scope="col"|Vowel
! scope="col"|bghoze ''bucket''
! scope="col"|nadno ''berry''
! scope="col"|rwidli ''people, tribe''
! scope="col"|hnáza ''platform, step''
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Agent
! scope="row"|Nominative
|e
|myénguzu
|e
|bghozezu
|nadnozu
|rwidlizu
|hnázazu
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
! scope="row"|Causative
|ëye
|myéngóye
|zhe
|bghozéjje
|nadnóye
|rwidlíish
|hnázáash
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
! scope="row"|Ablative
|aman
|myéngweng
|aman
|bghozeng
|-
|nadnweng
! scope="row"|Comitative
|rwidleng
|amant
|hnázang
|amant
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Benefactive
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|amampi
|myéngwimpi
|amampi
|bghozempi
|-
|nadnokimpi
! scope="row"|Vialis
|rwidlikimpi
|ren
|hnázempi
|ren
|-
! scope="row"|Instrumental
|l
|hl
|-
! scope="row"|Addessive
|mazh
|mazh
|-
! scope="row"|Locative
|ëzh
|zh
|-
! scope="row"|Dative
|ëc
|c
|-
! scope="row"|Patientive
|VhVVm*
|VhVVm*
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Posessive
! scope="row"|Posessive
|mo
|myéngwihno
|mo
|bghozehno
|-
|nadnokihno
! scope="row"|Comparative
|rwidlikihno
|ëhmo
|hnázehno
|hmo
|-
! scope="row"|Genitive/Combing stem
|ëm
|m
|}
*V means vowel of the second syllable, which is reduplicated. Schwa endings do not reveal the final consonant in vowel ending nouns.
 
===Consonant declension===
Voiceless consonant ending
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px; height: 500px;"
|+K-nouns group 1 animate, múk, múge, mûgíi (dog-like animal)
|-
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Single
Adessive
! scope="col"|Paucal
|myéngwicra
! scope="col"|Plural
|bghozecra
|-
|nadnokicra
! scope="row"|Agent
|rwidlikicra
|múk
|hnázecra
|múgii
|{{Hpc|b|t|múugye}}
|-
! scope="row"|Causative
|múgëye
|múgiizhe
|{{Hpc|b|t|múugëye}}
|-
! scope="row"|Ablative
|{{Hpc|k|b|múky}}{{Hpc|r|t|ehn}}
|múgii{{Hpc|r|t|ñi}}
|{{Hpc|b|b|múugy}}{{Hpc|r|t|aman}}
|-
! scope="row"|Comitative
|{{Hpc|k|b|múky}}{{Hpc|r|t|ent}}
|múgii{{Hpc|r|t|ñzhu}}
|{{Hpc|b|b|múugy}}{{Hpc|r|t|amant}}
|-
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|{{Hpc|k|b|múky}}{{Hpc|r|t|empi}}
|múgii{{Hpc|r|t|ñipi}}
|{{Hpc|b|b|múugy}}{{Hpc|r|t|amampi}}
|-
! scope="row"|Vialis
|{{Hpc|k|b|múkyor}}
|múgiiren
|{{Hpc|b|t|múugren}}
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Instrumental
! scope="row"|Instrumental
|múkl
|myéngo
|múgiyan
|bghozho (bghoz-yo)
|{{Hpc|b|t|múugl}}
|nadno
|-
|rwidlyl
! scope="row"|Adessive
|hnáza
|múkmazh
|múgiimi
|{{Hpc|b|t|múugmazh}}
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Locative
! scope="row"|Locative
|múxi
|myéngwíik
|múgiishi
|bghozíik
|{{Hpc|b|t|múugëzh}}
|nadnóok
|rwidllíik
|hnazíik
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Dative
! scope="row"|Dative
|múkci
|myénguci
|múgiic
|bghozeci
|{{Hpc|b|t|múugëc}}
|nadnoci
|-
|rwidlici
! scope="row"|Patient
|hnázaci
|{{Hpc|g|b|mûgíiha}}
|múgiyan
|{{Hpc|b|b|múugihíim}}
|-
! scope="row"|Posessive
|{{Hpc|g|b|mûgíing}}
|múgino
|{{Hpc|b|t|múugmo}}
|-
! scope="row"|Comparative
|{{Hpc|g|b|mûgíiho}}
|múkihno
|{{Hpc|b|t|múugëhmo}}
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Genitive/Combining form
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
|{{Hpc|g|b|mûgíi}}
|myéngugíi
|múgin
|bghozíi
|{{Hpc|b|t|múugëm}}
|nadnwíi
|rwidlíi
|hnázegíi
|}
|}
1: stems marked in '''Bold '''require knowledge of the invisible vowel, always marked in the second principle part
2: stems marked in {{Hpc|g|t|green}} are formed off of the second principle part
3: stems marked in {{Hpc|b|t|blue}} are formed off of the third principle part
4: endings marked in {{Hpc|r|t|red}} use the ablative stem, and are similar across all nouns. Forming the ablative stem require knolwedge of both the first and second principle parts.
===Endings added to the combining stem===
These endings are added to the combining stem, and must themselves be declined before the noun is used. These nouns may only be declined in the dative, locative, vialis, and ablative. They are effectively "prepositional nouns".  They decline irregularily.
The Location in time suffixes are effectively only used for events and verbal nouns, . For example "cénzupor": means "the event of me seeing him". Add the time locative jep to the combining stem, and you get "céninzuprejep", meaning "at the time I was speaking to him". Adding "nu" before  "jep" means before, adding "pya" means after, "céninzuprenujep": before I spoke to him, "céninzuprepyajep": after I spoke to him.
The dative means "until", "céninzupresañci me zénihnloo" means "he didn't go until I saw him."


The vialis means "during", or "the whole time", "shúñci ceñocayolshaajut cíirváa" means "During he entire time I was speaking to the man, he watched me". "Shüñáajut pécukihn zénlíil behrudokci." means "It takes the whole day to get from here to the Behru capitol."


The ablative means "since", "nushüñáamihn me cíininwaan" means "I haven't seen him since yesterday."


The other suffixes are used in effectively the same way as their simple counterparts, eg:


mélohi: at the car mélokihn: from the car. méloci: to the car
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="margin: 0px auto;"
 
|+Declension of sonorant nouns.
milóone: in the car milóonehn: from in the car. milóoneci: to the inside of the car.
 
milóore: outside of the car milóorehn: from outside of the car, etc.
 
       
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Combining stem endings
|-
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Locative
! scope="col"|tsan ''support''
! scope="col"|Locative verbal
! scope="col"|húm ''fluid''
! scope="col"|Dative
! scope="col"|byéng ''metal''
! scope="col"|Vialis
! scope="col"|südzlar ''elbow''
! scope="col"|Ablative
! scope="col"|kwél  ''cloud''
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Location in time
! scope="row"|Nominative
|(nu)(pya)jep
|tsaan
| -
|húum
|sañci
|bzhíing
|jut
|südzlaar
|mihn
|kwíil
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Within
! scope="row"|Causative
|ne
|tsañje
|ñu
|húhmye
|neci
|byén'gye
|nut
|südzlarje
|nehn
|kwélje
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Outside
! scope="row"|Ablative
|re
|tsanding
|ryu
|húmbing
|reci
|byén'ging
|rut
|südlarjing
|rehn
|kwélzing
|-
|-
! scope="row"| Left of
! scope="row"|Benefactive
|yozh
|tsaanpi
|yoyu
|húmpi
|yocci
|bzhíingpi
|yoyut
|südzlarpi
|yoyehn
|kwíilpi
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Right of
! scope="row"|Posessive
|myak
|tsaahnno
|myaklu
|húuhmno
|myakci
|bzhíihngno
|myakut
|südzlahrno
|myakehn
|kwíihlno
|}
 
===Showing that a noun is posessed.===
If a noun is owned by another noun (marked in the posessive case), an infix is inserted before the second syllable/final consonant that agrees with the possessor. The genitive case is only used when one noun owns another noun, or with relations (my mother, your father). If one noun is part of the other noun, then a compound word using the combining stem is used instead. Inanimate objects always use the combining stem, never the posessive.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Posessive agreement infixes (and use with múk)
|-
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="row"|Adessive
! scope="col"|Singular
|tsaancra
! scope="col"|Paucal
|húumcra
! scope="col"|Plural
|bzhíingcra
|südzlarcra
|kwíilcra
|-
|-
! scope="row"|1st person
! scope="row"|Instrumental
|në, múnëk
|tsaahnu
|bi, múbik
|húuhmu
|më, múmëk
|bzhíihngu
|südzlaarzho
|kwíiyo
|-
|-
! scope="row"|2nd person
! scope="row"|Locative
|xë, múxëk
|tsanti
|xi, múxik
|húmpi
|gë, múgëk
|byéngki
|südzlarshi
|kwélsi
|-
|-
! scope="row"|3rd person
! scope="row"|Dative
|lü, múlük
|tsaanci
|zi, múzik
|húumci
|lnë, múlnëk
|bzhíingci
|-
|südzlaarci
! scope="row"|4th person
|kwíilci
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;"|pl, múplk
|}
The possessed nouns may be further declined, múbik (our dog), múbigii (our dogs), múbigiiñipi (for our dogs).
 
''note: the consonants n,m,ng,ñ,r,l,f,v,sh,and zh are considered part of the previous syllable when followed by another consonant, for example, xworji divides into xwor-ji, xamp divides to xam-p, thus you'd get xworziji and xamzip'', ''not xwozirji and xazimp.''
 
 
Verb Morphology
Behru verbs are conjugated by factors, person, number, transitivity, tense aspect, and mood. Many Behru sentences consist of only a verb, as both the subject and object may be dropped if they can be determined by context.
==Verb Morphology==
===The four basic stems===
Each verb has four stems whose forms are unpredictable from eachother, which are are the basic, causative, weak, and special stems. All other verb stems can be predicted from these four.
 
The four stems of the root cet, meaning to speak, are: cet, crwiit, cidaa, and cocash(y).
 
===The basic stem and independent conjugation.===
The basic stem has the Independant personal agreement endings added to it, for example, the basic stem of cet, is well, cet, and the conjugated forms are: cedúu: I speak, cedabi: we(ex.) speak, cedaji: we(inc.) speak, cedaak: you (singular) speak, cedaak: you(paucal) speak, cedage: you(plural) speak, etc. However, these endings are not added onto the stem directly, some sound changes must be done first, according to the rules listed below.
====Ivc Rule 1====
The fully conjugated form of the verb must have two syllables after the verb stem.
 
''(verb-stem final vowels are considered to be after the verb stem, not a part of it)''
=====Clause 1=====
If not, lengthen the first vowel after the verb stem
If you want to say "I speak" (in an independant clause, of course, as we are studying the Independant forms of a verb), you take the basic stem of the verb to speak(cet, and add the 1st person subject ending (intransitive of course), ú, making cedú (not cetú, remember sandhi rule 12, it caused that t to change to a d.). However, that is not actually the correct form, due to Ivc(independant verb conjugation) rule 1: all ivc forms must have at least 3 syllables. Ivc rule one says "lengthen the second syllable", thus, lengthen the second syllable. So, lengthen the second syllable of "cedú" to "cedúu". If you want to say "you(singular) flee", you add "k" to the basic stem of to flee, "shúnda", forming "shúndak", and then apply rule 1, forming "shúndaak". Remember, the final "a" in "shúnda" is considered to be after the verb stem, not a part of it, which is why it is lengthened by rule 1.
 
However, ivc rule 1 isn't that simple. You might assume that in order to say we(ex.) speak, you would add cet and bi to make cedbi, and then apply rule 1 on the second syllable to make it cedbii(3 syllables). However the true form of we (ex.) speak is "cedabi", not "cedbii". You will learn why in ivc rule one clause 2
=====Clause 2=====
Do not lengthen the second syllable if it follows a consonant cluster created by the end of the verb stem and the beginnning of a personal ending. Instead, insert an epenthetic vowel appropriate to the verb stem between the stem and ending.
That was allot to take in, wasn't it? It will seem simpler with examples. For examples, the form "cedbi" would have ivc 1 clause 2 applied to it because a: it is only 2 syllables long (ced+bi), and, the cluster "db was created by the t(changed to a d) at the end of the verb stem "cet" + the b at the beginning of the personal ending "bi". Thus, you'd add the epenthetic vowel appropriate to "cet" (a), between stem and ending, producing "cedabi" (cet+a+bi).
 
However, if you want to say "I float", clause two does not apply. When you take the basic stem of to float, "kómt"(takes the epenthetic vowel a), and add "ú", you make "kómtú"(Why didn't the t change to a d like in "cedú"? Read sandhi rule 12.). You might think to apply clause two because of the consonant, making "kómadú", but that is not correct. The consonant cluster was not created by contact with the end of the verb stem and beginning of the personal ending, it was already there in the stem, thus clause one would apply, forming "kómtúu". However, clause two does apply in the form "kómdbi" (we speak), because the cluster "mdb" was created by the b in the ending "bi", meaning we(ex.), thus, "kómdbi" would become "kómtabi", not "kómdbii".
 
You can usually tell the epenthetic vowel by the final vowel of the weak stem form, for example, the weak stem of "cet" is "cida<u>a</u>", so the epenthetic vowel is "a". However, this does not always work, for example, "we swim" would be "vábebi", even though the weak stem of váp is "vábii", suggesting that "we swim" would instead be "vábibi". These irregularities just have to be learned by rote. However, we are still not done with ivc rule 1.
=====Clause 3=====
If, after the application of Clause 2, the verb ending is still not 2 syllables long, lengthen the epenthetic vowel inserted by Clause 2.
This rule would apply in cases like when you want to say "you(singular) speak". You add the ending "k" to "cet", forming "cetk". you then apply clause two to "cetk", forming "cetak". However, there is still only one syllable after the stem even after the applucation of clause two. Clause three says to lengthen the epenthetic vowel inserted by clause two, thus "cetak" becomes "cedaak". "kómtk" (you float) becomes "kómtak" beomces "kómtaak", "vápk" (you swim)becomes "vápek", becomes "vábiik", etc. (the e in vabek lengthens to "ii", not "ee", this alway happens, as there is no "ee" sound in Behru).
 
====Ivc rule 2====
Disyllabic endings become monosyllabic after verb stems ending in a vowel.
This rule is in much the same vein as ivc rule 1, it keeps the verb ending at two syllables, as the final vowel in the verb stem takes up a syllable, forcing the ending to give up a syllable in its place. For example, "they go", is "zíihnloon" (zíin+hloon), however, "they flee", is "shúndahlon", "hloon" giving up a vowel to become "hlon" to accomodate the final a in "shúnda".
 
"you heal me" is "hnaalnimu"("hnaal"+"nimu"), however, "you hit me", is "cábammyu", "nimu" being reduced to "mmyu" to accomodate the final a in "cába".
 
"you heal us", is "hnaaldasa"("hnaal+dasa), "you hit us", is "cábatsa", etc. The shortened verb endings are listed to the left of long endings in the polypersonal agreement endings chart.
====Ivc rule 3====
Ivc  rule 3 applies only to verb stems ending in liquids (n,m,ng,r, and l)., and overrides any other ivc rules of a lower number that could be applied.
 
Verbs stems ending in said consonants have their core vowel shortened before personal endings starting with a vowel. In addition, an epenthetic consonant appropriate to the verb stem is inserted.
 
For example, if you want to say "I go", you add the stem for "to go", "zíin", and add "ú" for the ending. However, "ú" starts with a vowel, so Ivc special rule 1 would apply. The appropriate consonant to insert for verbs ending in an "n" is "z", thus zíinú has its vowel shortened to "zénú", then the epenthetic consonant inserted, producing "zénzú.
 
For verbs ending in an "ng", add "g", "míing-ú"(I shrink) becomes "ménggúu"
 
For verbs ending in an "m", add "v",  "xáam-ú"(I slip) becomes "xámvúu"
 
For verbs ending in an "l", add "z", "yuul-ú"(I walk) becomes "yulzúu"
 
For verbs edning in an "r", add "zh", "cíir-óxa"(he watches thou) becomes "cérzhóxa"
====Ivc rule 4====
Verb stems that would be affected by ivc rule 3 are unnafected by clauses 2 and 3 of ivc rule 1
=====Clause 1=====
The first vowel of the verb ending is lengthened if the ending is not 2 syllables long If the verb stem ends in n, m, ng, l, or r. Thus, "yuul-bi" (we walk), which has a one syllable ending, is changed to "yuulbii", "cíin-tó" (I see thee) is changed to "cíintóo".
=====Clause 2=====
If the verb stem ends in n, m, ng, l, or r, the endings -k and -k are changed to -kaa and -kii.
 
The ending "k" is actually two endings, one meaning "thou" and the other meaning "you few". In ordinary verbs, these endings are both the same, but in these verbs, the ending splits, if you want to say "thou walk", you say "yuulkaa", if you want to say "you walk", you say "yuulkii"
 
===Tense and aspect===
 
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|+Formation of past and future tenses
|-
! scope="col"|
To form the past tense of a verb
 
like cet
 
or mózhda
! scope="col"|
add li before the final syllable of the stem or the very final consonant.
 
cet to celit
 
mózhda to mózhnida
|-
! scope="col"|
To form the future tense of a verb
 
like mála
 
or hmwant
! scope="col"|
add ni before the final syllable of the stem or the very final consonant.
 
mála to mánila
 
hmwant to hmwannit
|}
 
 
 
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|+Formation of the progressive
|-
! scope="col"|
To form the progressive tense of a verb starting or containing a consonant cluster ending in a consonant, fricative, y, hy, w, or hw
 
like cet, féde, tádo, yul
! scope="col"|
Insert an infix after the first consonant consisting of the weakened first vowel and a voiced fricative of the same point of articulation as said consonant
 
cizhet, fivéde, tëzádo, yüzhul
 
(notice, verbs starting in c, j, sh, zh, and ñ can use z or zh depending on whether they sonorize with an l [use z] or and r [uze zh]
|-
|
To form the progressive of a verb starting in a nasal
 
like ñen, muk, hnédo, ngyoba
|
do the same as above, but add a nasal consonant before the consonant infix (ñ is treated like n, ng uses n'g
 
ñinzen, mümvuk, hninzédo, ngyën'goba
|-
|-
|
! scope="row"|Paucal stem
To form the progressive of a verb starting in or having a consonant cluster ending in r or l
|tsansíi
 
|húmvíi
like rop, zhlún
|byéngxíi
|
|südzlarzhíi
reduplicate lV or rV, and weaken first syllable
|kwélzíi
 
rërop, zhlülún
|}
|}
 
==Verbs ==
===The passive and causative stems===
Behru verbs agree with both subject and object in number an animacy, and can function as replacements for many nouns. For example, the Behru word "muhlamaleslzilíi" means "you can't sing them", a verb used in place of a noun meaning "consonants". Like a regular noun, it may have endings added to it and be declined.
The passive is formed by palatilizing the last consonant in the first consonant cluster (adding a y). The causative is formed by labialization of that same consonant(adding a w). The first vowel is lengthened in both forms. Some initial consonants/ consonant clusters must be sonorized before being palatalized or labialized. The causative stem is included in the principle parts to show whether or not this happens. You must check this in the dictionary entry on the verb's stems. For example, the causative stem of cet is crwiit. To change it to passive, replace the w with y, crwiit to cryiit. Sandhi changes cryiit to crshiit. The causative stem of lup is lvuup. The v was a w, changed to a v by sandhi. So replace the w(changed into a v), with y, lvuup to lyuup
===Abstract endings (kshémudoon ceddobaaghe)===
===Special compound stem===
There exists a closed class of clitic verbs in Behru which are suffixed to the stem of a free standing verb. The basic stem is not used, instead the special compound stem is used. The form of the special compound stem is unpredictable and thus is a principle part. (note: the basic stem is used in ordinary compound verbs, not the special compound stem.) The special compound stem is also used to add nominal endings to.
 
cet becomes cocash/ cocay
 
mála becomes hmáalash/ hmáalay
 
zén becomes zhóni/ zhónis
 
zot becomes zootwash/ zootway
 
xworji becomes xworojii/ xworojii(s)
 
Common clitic verbs
 
-es/et: possible, eg: cocayesú: I can speak
 
ghóon: to start, eg: cocazhghóohnlo: he is about to begin speaking
 
shosu: to cease, eg: zéyëdacosuji: we will stop moving momentarily
 
===Tense and aspect in compound verbs.===
The very last verb in a compound always recieves the tense/aspect infixes, in the same manner as a normal verb.
 
thus, cocayet: can speak, as in cocayedbi: we can speak, vs cocayenit: was able to speak, as in cocayenidbi: we were able to speak.
 
 
===Polypersonal agreement===
The Behru verb agrees with its preformer, or subject, in person and number. A transitive verb also agrees with its object in person, subject, and number. Verb endings are added to the stem in the same manner noun endings are.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
|+Intransitive verb participant agreement
|+Abstract Intransitive endings
|-
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="row"|Number
! scope="col"|Singular
! scope="col"|Singular
! scope="col"|Paucal
! scope="col"|Paucal
! scope="col"|Plural
! scope="col"|Plural
|-
|-
! scope="row"|1st person
! scope="row"|First person
|ú
|hi
|bu
|bu
|ji
|ñji
|-
! scope="row"|2nd person
|k(aa)
|k(ii)
|ke
|-
! scope="row"|3rd person
|hlo
|zu
|hloon-hlon
|-
! scope="row"|4th person
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;"|líl-l
|}
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table"
|+Nominal form
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Singular
! scope="col"|Paucal
! scope="col"|Plural
|-
! scope="row"|1st person
|émi
|ébi
|éji
|-
! scope="row"|2nd person
|éjri
|énang
|éjre
|-
! scope="row"|3rd person
|olasha
|ángude
|oliishan
|-
|-
! scope="row"|4th person
! scope="row"|Second person
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;"|éhwe
|ka
|}
|ku
 
|(long)he
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table"
|+Descriptive form
|-
|-
! scope="col"|Singular
! scope="row"|Third person
! scope="col"|Paucal
|hyu
! scope="col"|Plural
|zú
|-
|hlon
|ñu
|mav
|ñoon
|}
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|+Transitive verb subject-object agreement
|-
! scope="col"|
Object>
 
subject
! scope="col"|
1
 
single
! scope="col"|1 paucal
! scope="col"|1 plural
! scope="col"|2 single
! scope="col"|2 paucal
! scope="col"|2 plural
! scope="col"|3 animate single
! scope="col"|3 animate paucal
! scope="col"|3 animate plural
! scope="col"|3 inanimate single
! scope="col"|3 inanimate paucal
! scope="col"|3 inanimate plural
! scope="col"|4th p
|-
! scope="col"|1p one
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"|tó
! scope="col"|ru
! scope="col"|tr
! scope="col"|wan
! scope="col"|uzhbu-zhbu
! scope="col"|unen-nwen
! scope="col"|i
! scope="col"|idu-ju
! scope="col"|idán-ján
! scope="col"|iga-gya
|-
! scope="col"|1p few
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"|có
! scope="col"|cóv
! scope="col"|de
! scope="col"|zhá
! scope="col"|linu-lnu
! scope="col"|zháan-zhán
! scope="col"|bi
! scope="col"|bidu-bbu
! scope="col"|bidán-bbán
! scope="col"|igav-gyav
|-
! scope="col"|1p many
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"|twé
! scope="col"|rwe
! scope="col"|twr
! scope="col"|wen
! scope="col"|uzhbwe-zhbwe
! scope="col"|nwiin-nwin
! scope="col"|jie
! scope="col"|jiedu-jju
! scope="col"|jiedán-jján
! scope="col"|ige-gye
|-
! scope="col"|2p one
! scope="col"|nim
! scope="col"|dasa-tsa
! scope="col"|iwa-zhwa
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"|lit
! scope="col"|kendu-ktu
! scope="col"|afnan-hnwan
! scope="col"|xi
! scope="col"|xidu-txyu
! scope="col"|xidán-txyán
! scope="col"|kóoga-kóok
|-
! scope="col"|2p few
! scope="col"|nimu-mmyu
! scope="col"|dasu-tsu
! scope="col"|ivu-zhvu
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"|lic
! scope="col"|kshindu-ctu
! scope="col"|ifnan-hñyan
! scope="col"|xizh
! scope="col"|xizhdu-cxyu
! scope="col"|xizhdán-cxyán
! scope="col"|kóogav-kóop
|-
! scope="col"|2p many
! scope="col"|nime-mmye
! scope="col"|dase-tse
! scope="col"|iwe-zhwe
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"| -
! scope="col"|liisht-lisht
! scope="col"|kshiindu-cant
! scope="col"|efnan-hñyan
! scope="col"|xe
! scope="col"|xedu-txu
! scope="col"|xedán-txán
! scope="col"|kóoge-kóok
|-
! scope="col"|3 single
! scope="col"|vá
! scope="col"|fingu-hnngyu
! scope="col"|vaam-vam
! scope="col"|óxa-xa
! scope="col"|óxi-xi
! scope="col"|óxe-xe
! scope="col"|rayáa
! scope="col"|kabu-ppu
! scope="col"|uzhgan-gyun
! scope="col"|ri
! scope="col"|ridu-ju
! scope="col"|ridán-ján
! scope="col"|yavba-vbya
|-
! scope="col"|3 paucal
! scope="col"|za
! scope="col"|zidu-ju
! scope="col"|zoon-zon
! scope="col"|óhan-han
! scope="col"|óhnu-hnu
! scope="col"|óhne-hne
! scope="col"|iben-byen
! scope="col"|bimu-mmu
! scope="col"|izhen-zhen
! scope="col"|zi
! scope="col"|zidu-dzu
! scope="col"|zidán-dzán
! scope="col"|sinav-hñav
|-
! scope="col"|3 plural
! scope="col"|vé
! scope="col"|fengu-hnngu
! scope="col"|viim-vem
! scope="col"|óca-ca
! scope="col"|óci-ci
! scope="col"|óce-ce
! scope="col"|rézh
! scope="col"|kebu-ppyu
! scope="col"|exhgan-gwen
! scope="col"|ehli-hle
! scope="col"|ehlit-hlit
! scope="col"|eltánn-tlán
! scope="col"|yavbe-vbye
|-
! scope="col"|4th person
! scope="col"|gañi-ngzhi
! scope="col"|gamu-ngmu
! scope="col"|gañe-ngye
! scope="col"|ózhdo-zhdo
! scope="col"|ózhdov-zhdov
! scope="col"|ózhdwe-zhdwe
! scope="col"|ótso-tso
! scope="col"|ódzu-dzu
! scope="col"|ótson-tson
! scope="col"|óci-ci
! scope="col"|ócit-cit
! scope="col"|óctan-can
! scope="col"| -
|}
 
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px; height: 500px;"
|+Participial endings
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|1 single
! scope="col"|1 paucal
! scope="col"|1 plural
! scope="col"|2 single
! scope="col"|2 paucal
! scope="col"|2 plural
! scope="col"|3 animate single
! scope="col"|3 animate paucal
! scope="col"|3 animate plural
! scope="col"|3 inanimate single
! scope="col"|3 inanimate paucal
! scope="col"|3 inanimate plural
! scope="col"|4
|-
! scope="row"|1st single
| -
| -
| -
|amo
|amark
|amar
|upor
|uzhbuk
|upran
|ér
|iráp
|iránt
|usuk
|-
! scope="row"|1 paucal
| -
| -
| -
|yazok
|dáafk
|yezok
|ushk
|ulnuk
|ushken
|ber
|birap
|birant
|ufuk
|-
! scope="row"|1 plural
| -
| -
| -
|émo
|émerk
|émar
|wepor
|wezhbuk
|wepran
|jiér
|jieráp
|jieránt
|uusuk
|-
! scope="row"|2 single
|oxon
|odók
|onók
| -
| -
| -
|úcohya
|ahmaase
|fok
|ujri
|ujrip
|ujrint
|ákashk
|-
! scope="row"|2 paucal
|ixan
|idák
|inák
| -
| -
| -
|úcac
|ahmaac
|fac
|ináng
|inangáp
|inangánt
|ikashk
|-
! scope="row"|2 plural
|oxiin
|odíik
|oníik
| -
| -
| -
|úcíihye
|ahmiise
|fiik
|wiijri
|wejrip
|wjerint
|ákaashk
|-
! scope="row"|3 single
|osar
|lert
|ason
|uvlak
|uvlagu
|uvlaage
|osep
|aksap
|osek
|ulasha
|ulashap
|ulashant
|azehl
|-
! scope="row"|3 paucal
|azhar
|efek
|azhek
|usunk
|usungvu
|usuungwe
|wanar
|nik
|waner
|inguut
|inguudep
|inguudent
|idun
|-
! scope="row"|3 plural
|esar
|ledi
|asen
|uvlek
|uvlegu
|uvliige
|esep
|aksep
|esek
|ulesha
|uleshap
|uleshant
|azehna
|-
! scope="row"|4
|yagún
|yagbin
|yagmán
|yagák
|yagin
|yagáak
|yaksha
|yakshun
|yakshe
|yahwe
|yahwep
|yahwent
|
|}
 
 
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|+Descriptive endings
|-
! scope="col"|Other preformer
! scope="col"|Number
! scope="col"|1st person singular
! scope="col"|1 paucal
! scope="col"|1 plural
! scope="col"|2 singular
! scope="col"|2 paucal
! scope="col"|2 plural
! scope="col"|3 animate singular
! scope="col"|3a paucal
! scope="col"|3a plural
! scope="col"|3 inanimate singular
! scope="col"|3in paucal
! scope="col"|3in plural
! scope="col"|4
|-
|Described subject
|Singular
|sóop
|udbi
|sóomt
|sóok
|sóogu
|sóoge
|mav
|olvu
|mév
|tek
|tekyup
|tekyunt
|fazh
|-
|-
! scope="row"|Fourth person
|li
|
|
|Paucal
|ngep
|dibi
|ngemt
|ngek
|ngegu
|ngege
|div
|divu
|jév
|méni
|méñup
|méñunt
|ngezh
|-
|
|
|Plural
|síip
|wedbi
|síimt
|síik
|síigu
|síige
|siv
|welvu
|shév
|unán
|unúp
|unúnt
|síizh
|-
|Described object
|Singular
|bak
|bik
|omsá
|igazh
|igizh
|igaazh
|wor
|ihru
|wer
|pásh
|pábi
|páñci
|dwoo
|-
|
|Paucal
|ngak
|ngik
|dimsá
|digazh
|digizh
|digaazh
|mir
|mihru
|mer
|básh
|bábi
|báñci
|bwoo
|-
|
|PLural
|báak
|bíik
|umsá
|ugazh
|ugizh
|ugaazh
|nir
|nihru
|ner
|myásh
|myábi
|myáñci
|mwoo
|}
===Deriving verbs to nouns===
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px;"
|+Nominalizing suffixes
|-
! scope="col"|ka (irregularily declined)
! scope="col"|gerund, cètka would mean speaking. Often used to form abstract nouns, málaka means "movement"
|-
! scope="col"|zo
! scope="col"|inanimate object associated with the verb (often imparts an irregular meaning which must be learned independantly) cèdzo would mean "words, speech
|-
! scope="col"|hen
! scope="col"|means -er in english, also used to indicate the inhabitant of a location, cèsen would mean speaker, kìdilihen would mean an idili person.
|-
! scope="col"|hik
! scope="col"|means "a way of doing something, method". cesik would mean "language"(way of speaking)
|-
! scope="col"|ya
! scope="col"|indicates an instance or cycle, can be used for both nouns and verbs. Typically paired with a number prefix, ñecèca would mean "third speech"
|-
! scope="col"|co
! scope="col"|indicates an event, such as in macco "the event of peace"
|-
! scope="col"|láng
! scope="col"|means the same thing as -ness in english, added to the descriptive stem of a verb, as in xuweláng "livelyness, health"
|}
====Talking about an entire sentence as a noun====
The so called "participial endings" turn an entire clause into a noun. They may be added to the basic, weak and special stems, imparting different meanings in each case. The special stem plus the participial ending describes the entire action as an event, gyáhenibwora (gyáhenibu: to injure past tense, plus -ora, the participial ending meaning the action was done by a singular third person to first person), means "the event of injuring  me". This noun could then be declined into the causative to form a complex sentence, for example "gyáhenibworaye zhánilzúu", "because he hit me I died". Using the basic stem adds a sense of uncertainity, "gyániboraye zhánilzúu" would mean "if he'd injured me I might have died. Use the weak stem describes the preformer of the action rather than the event itself, "gyënibáahora" means "the one who injured me".
===Noun incorporation===
A Behru verb may incorporate a noun, decreasing its transitivity by one. The noun is prefixed to the verb in its Weak form, and usually acts as the object of the verb.
hyép(transitive): to eat> bëlóohyép(intransitive): to eat bólo.
Some verbs must always incorporate nouns, some of these are attached to the strong stem of the noun, like -tsu.
(x)tsu: to make x> bólotsu(intransitive): to make bólo.
As intransitive verbs cannot lose any more transitivity, a noun incorporated into them instead expresses an instrumental relationship between the noun and verb, for example
zíin(intransitive): to go, jëlóozíin: to go by aircraft, milóozíin: to go by vehicle
kót: to fly, jëlóokót: to fly by aircraft.
Noun incorporation is preffered to using a transitive verb in sentences involving inanimate objects, particularily if the objects are indefinite, giving a subtle difference in meaning.
for example, "bëlóohyénibyúu" means "I ate bolo", however, "bëlóoha hyénipshii" would mean "I ate the bolo."
==The copulas==
The copulas are suffixes attached to the predicate noun in an equative sentence. It conjugates irregularily. The -lu copula is the stative copula, you use it to say "the dog is red". The ru copula is the change copula, you'd use it to say "the dog has gotten redder", or "the dog is red but it wasn't the last time I saw it.". The byu copula is used to indicate resemblance but not equality, "that dog is like its owner."
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px; height: 500px;"
|+Conjugation of the copulas
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Lu
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|Ru
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|Byu
! scope="col"|
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|Present
! scope="col"|Past
! scope="col"|Present
! scope="col"|Past
! scope="col"|Present
! scope="col"|Past
|-
! scope="row"|1st person singular
|foba
|dam
| -
| -
| byoba
| byam
|-
! scope="row"|1 paucal
|fobu
|dabu
| -
| -
| byobu
| byabu
|-
! scope="row"|1 plural
|níin
|díin
| -
| -
| biníin
| bzhíin
|-
! scope="row"|2nd person singular
|foxa
|dang
| -
| -
| byoxa
| byang
|-
! scope="row"|2 paucal
|foxu
|dangu
| -
| -
| byoxu
| byangu
|-
! scope="row"|2 plural
|foxe
|dange
| -
| -
| byoxe
| byange
|-
! scope="row"|3rd person singuar animate
|lon
|da
|ron
|ja
|son
|bya
|-
! scope="row"|3a paucal
|loju
|daju
|roju
|jayu
|soju
|byaju
|-
! scope="row"|3a plural
|kíin
|díin
|ríin
|jíin
|bíin
|bzhíin
|-
! scope="row"|3rd person singular inanimate
|lu
|du
|ru
|ju
|su
|byu
|-
! scope="row"|3ina paucal
|luv
|duv
|ruv
|juv
|suv
|byuv
|-
! scope="row"|3ina plural
|lun
|dun
|run
|jun
|sun
|byun
|-
! scope="row"|4th person
|sil
|dil
|ril
|jil
|bil
|biil
|}
|}
====The comparative copula====
The comparative copula states one thing is more x than another. The copula comes after the adjective it is using for comparison. Its "subject" is what is described, and the "object" is the basis of comparison, in the comparative case. The top of the columns indicate what is being described, the beginning of the rows, what they are being compared to.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table article-table-selected" style="width: 500px; height: 500px;"
|+Comparative copula
|-
! scope="row"|
! scope="col"|1 singular
! scope="col"|1 paucal
! scope="col"|1 plural
! scope="col"|2 singular
! scope="col"|2 paucal
! scope="col"|2 plural
! scope="col"|3 animate singular
! scope="col"|3 animate paucal
! scope="col"|3 animate plural
! scope="col"|3 inanimate singular
! scope="col"|3 inanimate paucal
! scope="col"|3 inanimate plural
! scope="col"|4
|-
! scope="row"|1 singular
| -
| -
| -
|tsok
|tsogu
|tsoge
|tsuu
|tsovu
|tswe
|tsop
|tsfup
|tsont
|tsl
|-
! scope="row"|1 paucal
| -
| -
| -
|tsobuk
|tsobugu
|tsobuge
|tsobuu
|tsobuvu
|tsobwe
|tsobup
|tsobyup
|tsobunt
|tsobl
|-
! scope="row"|1 plural
| -
| -
| -
|tsíink
|tsíingu
|tsíinge
|tsíinuu
|tsíimvu
|tsíine
|tsíimp
|tsíiñup
|tsíinunt
|tsíinl
|-
! scope="row"|2 singular
|tsoxam
|tsoxabu
|tsoxama
| -
| -
| -
|tsoxuu
|tsoxavu
|tsoxwe
|tsoxap
|tsoxyup
|tsoxant
|tsoxl
|-
! scope="row"|2 paucal
|tsoxum
|tsoxubu
|tsoxuma
| -
| -
| -
|tsoxuu
|tsoxuvu
|tsoxwe
|tsoxup
|tsoxuup
|tsoxunt
|tsoxl
|-
! scope="row"|2 plural
|tsoxem
|tsoxebu
|tsoxema
| -
| -
| -
|tsoxyuu
|tsoxevu
|tsoxii
|tsoxep
|tsoxyup
|tsoxent
|tsoxl
|-
! scope="row"|3 singular
|tsum
|tsubu
|tsuma
|tsuk
|tsugu
|tsuge
|tsuyáa
|tsabu
|tsagan
|tsap
|cup
|tsant
|tsal
|-
! scope="row"|3 paucal
|tsuum
|tsuubu
|tsuuma
|tsuuk
|tsuugu
|tsuuge
|tsuur
|tsuuhru
|tser
|tsuup
|tsuuyup
|tsuunt
|tsuul
|-
! scope="row"|3 plural
|tsíim
|tsíibu
|tsíima
|tsíik
|tsíigu
|tsíige
|tsíir
|tsíihru
|ciir
|tsíip
|tsiyúp
|tsíint
|tsíil
|-
! scope="row"|4
|díim
|díibu
|díima
|díik
|díigu
|díige
|díisa
|díizu
|díisan
|díip
|diyúp
|díint
| -
|}
==Behru syntax==
===Noun syntax===
===Basic case (bsc)===
The basic case is used for
-the agent of a transitive verb
'''múk''' shüneha kyocaryá: '''the dog''' pushes the man
dog-s-bsc man-s-pac push-3psa.3pans.p~idp
-the participant in an intransitive verb
'''múk '''cetloo: '''the dog '''speaks
dog-s-bsc speak-3ps.it
-before the topic particle zú
'''múuge '''zú nebalíl: as for '''dogs''', they run
dog-pl-bsc TOPIC run-4p~idp
===The topic===
The topic of the sentence is a noun marked with the postposition zú. It is used in the gnomic tense, to set that noun apart from other nouns in a dsecription. The topic need not be the subject of the sentence, it can be in any case. Verbs marked with a 4th person agreement agree with the last stated topic in a discourse
===Causative case (cac)===
The causative case is used for the cause of a verb in the causative.
'''cinidémiye''' múk nwiinibahlo: '''because I spoke, '''the dog ran
Some verbs can use the basic or causative cases, this causes a subtle change in meaning
shúun kwootri: the man throws it (causes it to fly), vs.
'''shúuñe''' kwoootlo: '''because of the man, '''it flies (the man did something else leading it to fly.
===Ablative case (abc)===
used for the origin of a motion
shúun zú '''béhrusokihn''' zéninlíil: as for the man, he came '''from the Behru homeland. '''
===Comitative case (cmc)===
Is used for the companion in an action.
shúun '''múkyant '''ninzebahlon: the man was running '''with the dog.'''
And to make adverbs out of nouns
'''másajákint''' cenitlo: she spoke '''strongly '''(with strength).
===Vialis case (vac)===
Used to indicate means of travel
shúun sedoñci '''béhrusokimpi '''zénihnlo: the man went to Sedone through the behru homeland
'''jálokimpi''' wunëdici kodú: I fly to my home '''by aircraft. '''
===Instrumental case (isc)===
Used to indicate tools used to complete an action.
'''molumikl''' hmoonlíil: it shines '''with heat.'''
===Adessive case (adc)===
used to indicate something an action was done without.
wálübakint '''cidolashamash''' sedoñci zénihnlo: she went to sedone without talking to her mother.
mother~3ps.po
===Locative case (lcc)===
Used to indicate the location of an action
doonde '''vudihi '''nebahloon: the children run '''in the house. '''
child-pl-bsc house-s-lcc run-3ppl.it
===Dative case (dtc)===
used to indicate the indirect object of a verb, the exact meaning varies.
The target of a verb of motion: '''shúuñci '''múk nenibahlo: the dog ran to the man.
man-sg-dtc dog-s-bsc run~past-3ps.it~idp
The target of a bitransitive verb: shúun '''vulüdici''' kwoonitri: the man threw it '''at his house.'''
man-sg-bsc house~3ps.po-s-dtc throw~past-3ps.a~3pins.p~idp
===Patient case (ptc)===
used to indicate the direct  object of an intransitive verb.
shúun '''tëlübyáaha''' túnijrehlo: the man took off '''his overshirt. '''
man-s-bsc overshirt~3ps.po-s-ptc remove~past-3ps.a~3pins.p~idp
===Posessive case (poc)===
used to indicate that one noun owns another.
'''shüneng '''tóbi: '''the man's''' overshirt
===Comparative case (coc)===
Used to indicate the basis of comparison
táamtsuu '''ledëneho: '''I am taller '''Than that child''' (compared to that child)
be.tall-compare-1ps.a~3pans.p that-child-s-coc
For describing relationships.
'''yóondemo '''huboloju: They are friends''' to those men.''' (In his "in" group)
man-pl-coc accquainted-be-3ppa.it
'''yóondemo '''rúnaloju: The are outsiders '''to those men'''
man-pl-coc outside-be-3ppa.it
For describing location
'''ficúuho''' vénzi yulññehyoju: The women are three miles away '''from the city'''
city-s-coc woman-pa-bsc mile-3-s-be.at-3ppa.it
===Combining stem===
==Numbers==
Behru has a base 12 numbering system. Simple numbers are simply suffixed after the nouns they count. The result is then declined like a noun.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="article-table" style="width: 500px;"
! scope="col"|1 mu
! scope="col"|12 gu
! scope="col"|144 sran
! scope="col"|1728 ghwe
! scope="col"|20736 sha
! scope="col"|248832 gusha
! scope="col"|
429981616
sisha
! scope="col"|
8916100448256
sifosha
! scope="col"|
12^16
siñesha
|-
! scope="col"|2 fo
! scope="col"|
24
fu
! scope="col"|288 fowan
! scope="col"|3456 fowe
! scope="col"|
41472
fosha
! scope="col"|
497664
fusha
! scope="col"|
859963232
fosisha
! scope="col"|etc
! scope="col"|etc
|-
! scope="col"|3 ñe
! scope="col"|
36 ñu
! scope="col"|
432
ñeyan
! scope="col"|
5184
ñewe
! scope="col"|
62208
ñesha
! scope="col"|
746496
ñusha
! scope="col"|etc
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
|-
! scope="col"|
4
ber
! scope="col"|
48
bru
! scope="col"|576 beran
! scope="col"|6912 berwe
! scope="col"|etc
! scope="col"|etc
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
|-
! scope="col"|5 dat
! scope="col"|60 datu
! scope="col"|etc
! scope="col"|etc
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
|-
! scope="col"|6 hmye
! scope="col"|72 hmyu
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
|-
! scope="col"|7 vel
! scope="col"|84 vlu
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
|-
! scope="col"|8 fer
! scope="col"|96 fru
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
|-
! scope="col"|9 niñe
! scope="col"|108 niñu
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
|-
! scope="col"|10 suk
! scope="col"|120 suku
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
|-
! scope="col"|11 ruse
! scope="col"|121 rusu
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|
|}
Compound numbers.
To make complex numbers, like 25, or 156, one strings together the simple numbers in a sequence of addition from the biggest to the smallest number.
25: fumu fu(24) and mu(1)
156: srangu sran(144( and gu(12)
157: srangumu
305: fowanggudat
when a number is affixed to a noun, it is declined like a noun. Typically, the penultimate vowel takes a ` accent and is subject to vowel strengthening or weakening. For example, 25 beds would be mùkfùmu, but if declined in the owner case, it would be mùkfümungò, and in the direction case, it would be mùkfùmuhi. 10 beds would be mùksùk. towards the (12^12)*11 people would be shúnrusesifòshashi
===Ordinal numbers===
Behru ordinal numbers are formed simply by prefixing a number to a noun. They are usually prefixed to a noun like -tsék(place) or -ya (time, as in a cycle)
===Fractional numbers===
Fractions in Behru are formed by the suffix -t for numbers which end in a vowel and -ta for ones ending in a consonant. The fractions for half, third, fourth, and twelfth are formed irregularily. They are -kir, nisa, besa, and gusa. they are used the same way normal numbers are, mùkrusèt would be 1 eleventh of a bed. If one wishes to count the fractions, those numbers are suffixed past the fraction. mùksransùktaruse would mean "eleven 154ths of a bed"
===Usage of numbers, and approximate quantities===
A specific number is always declined in the "few" number, as the few number is considered to encompass all small or specific quantities. A general number, like -not, which means some, is considered a mass noun, and all mass nouns use the "many" case.


General quantity suffixes -hok: every,all -mok: none -hot: some -huk: most -muk: few


Number modifying suffixes: -sát: around, aprroximately -kere: only, just


==Honorifics==
<!-- Categories -->
''{{NUMBEROFVIEWS}}''
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Behru cesik]][[Category:Lexica]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Behru cesik]]

Latest revision as of 02:43, 20 January 2017

Behru Cesik (meaning Behru way of speaking) is the highest language of the Behru empire. The stage of the language represented in this article is that spoken when the empire conquered the Yamazi dynasty of Winanda and began imposing its culture over a wide area.

Phonology

Phonemes

All Behru consonants except /h/ have voiced and voiceless counterparts. Voiceless consonants are usually weakly aspirated, the voiceless sonorants strongly so. Voiceless consonants are listed after their voiced counterparts in the table. Romanization is listed in Bold below the ipa. Romanization will be used in all sections of the article other than the phonology section.

Consonants (muhlámaleslzilíi)
Labial (Kálihi) Alveolar (jüdíixáahniík) Post alveolar (jüdíixëhnémihi) Palato-alveolar (jüdíixáansingerihi) Palatal (singerihi) Velar (singezóok) Glottal (mákughétóok)
Plosive (zotozilíi)

p b

p b

t d

t d

g k

g k

h

h

Afrricate (zotaxehmozilíi)

tɕ dʑ

c j

Fricative (xehmozilíil)

ɸ β

f v

s z

s z

ɕ ʑ

sh zh

x ɣ

x gh

Nasal (dzátacetozilíi)

m m̥ʰ

m hm

n n̥ʰ

n hn

ɲ ɲ̥ʰ

ñ hñ

ŋ ŋ̥ʰ

ng hng

Approximant (manjiuzilíi)

w w̥ʰ

w hw

l l̥ʰ

l hl

r r̥ʰ

r hr

j j̥ʰ

y hy

Behru has 4 base vowels, a, ɛ, u, and o, whose qualities change based on length and stress. Each vowel has 3 forms, long, short, and reduced. The vowel centralizes when it reduces, a and o reduce to ə̆, u reduces to ʊ, ɛ reduces to ɪ̆. The vowel ɛ uniquely changes to i: when lengthened. As before, romanized forms are marked in the chart. In addition, vowels may carry a high tone or a low tone, a high tone is marked with an acute, e.g., á, í, úu, óo. Low tone is unmarked. Reduced vowels are always low tone, even if derived from an originally high toned vowel.

Vowels (lámozilíi)
Front Front-mid Mid Mid-back Back
Close

i:

ii

ɪ̆

i

ʊ̆

ü

u u:

uu u

Mid

ɛ

e

ə̆

ë

o o:

oo o

Open

a: a

aa a


Phonotactical restraints and Sandhi

Rule 1

All syllables start with 1 to 4 consonants and contain only 1 vowel, no more, no less.

j̥ʰa, mút, cen, xoo, ɲɛ are all permitted.

ɛt, u and itɕ are not permitted due to not having an initial consonant.

sɛun, lai, and ɣə̆if are not permitted due to having 2 vowels.

tpt, xn, mj̥ʰ are not permitted due to having no vowels.

*exception: kl̥t and zrn are permitted because /l/ and /r/ may optionally function as reduced vowels.

Rule 2

All consonants in a consonant cluster must agree in voicing if they do not, the voicing of the first consonant of the second syllable controls the voicing. kx, tɸ, n̥ts, bw, dɣy and m̥y̥ʰ are all permitted due to all members of the cluster agreeing in voice. sʊ̆ɸk+zwáan must be changed to sʊ̆βgzwáan because they do not agree in voicing. As z is the first consonant of the second syllable and is voiced, it changes all unvoiced consonants in the cluster to voiced, changing k to g and ɸ to β l̥ʰən+ksɛ must become l̥ʰən̥ksɛ, because k, the first consonant of the second syllable, is unvoiced, changing the voiced n to voiceless n̥.

Rule 3

Syllable initial consonant clusters are permitted, they may consist at most

Stop + Fricative + Liquid (/l/ or /r/) + /w/ or /j/, or

Nasal+ /w/ or /j/ in that order.

kfr̥j̥ is permitted as it contains a stop fricative, liquid, and /j/ in the right order, and all consonants agree in voicing, as specified in rule two. kn̥ and ŋr are not permitted as nasals may not coexist with stops, fricatives, or liquids in consonant clusters. skj̥ is not permitted as fricatives may not precede stops, sɲ̥ is not permitted as fricatives may not precede nasals. mj is permitted as /j/ may come after a nasal. zlw is permitted as all constituents are in the right order, fricative>liquid> /w/ or /y/ wzl and lzw are not, however, they are not in the right order. βj is permitted, the contituents are in the right order and of the right type. Rule 4 any alveolar consonant followed by /j/ is transformed to its palatal counterpart. tj̥ and dj become tɕ and dʑ respectively. sj̥ and zj become ɕ and ʑ respectively nj and n̥j̥ʰ become ɲ and ɲ̥ʰ respectively.

Rule 5 The combinations /ji:/ and /jɪ/ are always converted to /ʑi:/ and /ʑɪ/ respectively. In the same manner, /wʊ/ and /wu:/ are always converted to /βʊ/ and /βu:/ respectively. This rule overides rule 3, the syllable /zlji:/ will be converted to /zlʑi:/ even though /zlʑ/ is otherwise forbidden at the beginning of a syllable due to having a fricative after a liquid. The /β/ and /ʑ/ will be converted into /ɸ/ and /ɕ/ if it would violated rule 2, /pl̥w̥ʰʊ/ would be converted to /pl̥ɸʊ/, not /pl̥βʊ/, /kj̥i:/ to /kɕi:/, not /kʑi:/. Rule 6 The only consonants that may occur syllable finally are t/d, p/b/, ɸ/β, k/g, n/n̥, m/m̥, ɲ/ɲ̥, ŋ/ŋ̥, and ɕ/ʑ. Voicing is not distinguished in the final position. Final stops and fricatives may have nasals preceding them , and ɕ/ʑ and ɸ/βmay precede any one of the others(but not eachother). Two nasals may not occur in a row in these syllables. raβn is a permitted syllable, but raβʑ is not. ramβ is permitted. l̥̥ʰʊm̥k is permitted, l̥ʰumn is not. kaβʑ and kaʑβ are not permitted, ʑ and β may not be together at the end of a syllable. Rule 7 A sequence of vowels is always interrupted by glides and or has the first vowel deleted to avoid violating rule 1. The change depends on the first vowel, ɛ, ɪ, and ii insert /j/ in a sequence of vowels. /ɪ/ is deleted when /j/ is inserted. uu, u, o, and ʊ insert /w/ in a sequence of vowels. /u/ and /ʊ/ are deleted when /w/ is inserted. kaɛ would become kɛ kau would become ku kɛɛ would become kɛjɛ kɪo: would become kjo: ki:o would become ki:jo ku:a would become ku:wa kua and kʊa would both become kwa kɛi: would become kɛji:, which would then become kɛʑi: due to rule 5 kʊu and kuu would both become kwu, which would then become kβu due to rule 5, and then kɸu due to rule 1. sɪɪ would become sjɪ due to rule 5, which would then become ɕi due to rule 4.

Nouns

Behru nouns delcine for 12 cases and 3 numbers. The 12 cases can be grouped into the simple cases, Nominative, Causative, Ablative, Benefactive, Posessive, Instrumental, Adessive, Locative, and Dative, and the complex cases, Accusative, Genitive, and Comparative. The complex cases use a different stem than simple cases.

Declension of Vowel deleting nouns

múki, dog-like animal

(i-type )

ratu, wind

(u-type )

ksopa, shelf

(a-type)

Nominative múkësh ratët ksopët
Causative múkye ratúsh ksopé
Ablative múking ratung ksopang
Benefactive múkimpi (múki-kimpi) ratwimpi ksopempi
Posessive múkihno (múki-kihno) ratwihno ksopehno
Adessive múkicra (múki-kicra) ratwicra ksopecra
Instrumental múkl rato ksopo
Locative múxi (múk-hi) raswi (rat-hwi) ksofi (ksop-hi)
Dative múkci ratcwi ksopci
Paucal stem múkíi- raswíi- ksopégii-



Declension of vowel holding nouns
myéngu water bghoze bucket nadno berry rwidli people, tribe hnáza platform, step
Nominative myénguzu bghozezu nadnozu rwidlizu hnázazu
Causative myéngóye bghozéjje nadnóye rwidlíish hnázáash
Ablative myéngweng bghozeng nadnweng rwidleng hnázang
Benefactive myéngwimpi bghozempi nadnokimpi rwidlikimpi hnázempi
Posessive myéngwihno bghozehno nadnokihno rwidlikihno hnázehno

Adessive

myéngwicra bghozecra nadnokicra rwidlikicra hnázecra
Instrumental myéngo bghozho (bghoz-yo) nadno rwidlyl hnáza
Locative myéngwíik bghozíik nadnóok rwidllíik hnazíik
Dative myénguci bghozeci nadnoci rwidlici hnázaci
Paucal stem myéngugíi bghozíi nadnwíi rwidlíi hnázegíi



Declension of sonorant nouns.
tsan support húm fluid byéng metal südzlar elbow kwél cloud
Nominative tsaan húum bzhíing südzlaar kwíil
Causative tsañje húhmye byén'gye südzlarje kwélje
Ablative tsanding húmbing byén'ging südlarjing kwélzing
Benefactive tsaanpi húmpi bzhíingpi südzlarpi kwíilpi
Posessive tsaahnno húuhmno bzhíihngno südzlahrno kwíihlno
Adessive tsaancra húumcra bzhíingcra südzlarcra kwíilcra
Instrumental tsaahnu húuhmu bzhíihngu südzlaarzho kwíiyo
Locative tsanti húmpi byéngki südzlarshi kwélsi
Dative tsaanci húumci bzhíingci südzlaarci kwíilci
Paucal stem tsansíi húmvíi byéngxíi südzlarzhíi kwélzíi

Verbs

Behru verbs agree with both subject and object in number an animacy, and can function as replacements for many nouns. For example, the Behru word "muhlamaleslzilíi" means "you can't sing them", a verb used in place of a noun meaning "consonants". Like a regular noun, it may have endings added to it and be declined.

Abstract endings (kshémudoon ceddobaaghe)

Abstract Intransitive endings
Number Singular Paucal Plural
First person hi bu ñji
Second person ka ku (long)he
Third person hyu zú hlon
Fourth person li
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