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[[Category:Brithenig]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:A posteriori]]
[[Category:Romance]]
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|pronunciation=/brɪθənˈig/
|pronunciation=brɪθənˈig
|name=Brithenig
|name=Brithenig
|nativename=Brithenig
|region=British Isles
|region=British Isles
|familycolor=Indo-European
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=Romance
|fam2=[[w:Italic languages|Italic]]
|fam3=Latin
|fam3=[[w:Romance languages|Romance]]
|fam4=[[w:British Latin|British Latin]]
|setting=A thought experiment in alternate history, Ill Bethisad, if Latin had replaced the Brittonic languages
|creator=Andrew Smith
|creator=Andrew Smith
|created=1996
|created=1996
|iso3=bzt
|iso3=bzt
|brcl=brit
}}
}}


'''Brithenig''', [brɪθənˈig], was created as a hobby in 1996 by Andrew Smith from New Zealand, who also invented the [[w:alternate history|alternate history]] of [[w:Ill Bethisad|Ill Bethisad]] to "explain" it.
'''Brithenig''', {{IPA|[brɪθənˈig]}}, was created as a hobby in 1996 by Andrew Smith from New Zealand, who also invented the [[w:alternate history|alternate history]] of [[w:Ill Bethisad|Ill Bethisad]] to have a conworld in which Brithenig could potentially exist.


Brithenig was not developed to be used in the real world, like [[Esperanto]] or [[Interlingua]], nor to provide detail to a work of fiction, like [[Klingon language|Klingon]] from the ''[[w:Star Trek|Star Trek]]'' scenarios. Rather, Brithenig started as a thought experiment to create a [[w:Romance languages|Romance]] language that might have evolved if Latin had displaced the native [[w:Celtic languages|Celtic]] language as the spoken language of the people in Great Britain.
Brithenig was not developed to be used in the real world, like [[w:Esperanto|Esperanto]] or [[Interlingua]], nor to provide detail to a work of fiction, like [[Klingon language|Klingon]] from the ''[[w:Star Trek|Star Trek]]'' scenarios. Rather, Brithenig started as a thought experiment to create a [[w:Romance languages|Romance]] language that might have evolved if Latin had displaced the native [[w:Celtic languages|Celtic]] language as the spoken language of the people in Great Britain.


The result is an artificial sister language to French, Catalan, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Occitan and Italian which differs from them by having sound-changes similar to those that affected the Welsh language, and words that are borrowed from the [[w:Brittonic languages|Brittonic languages]] and from English throughout its pseudo-history. One important distinction between Brithenig and Welsh is that while Welsh is [[w:Gallo-Brittonic languages|P-Celtic]], Latin was a [[w:Osco-Umbrian_languages#Differences_from_Latin|Q-Italic language]] (as opposed to [[w:Osco-Umbrian_languages#Differences_from_Latin|P-Italic]], like [[w:Oscan language|Oscan]]), and this trait was passed onto Brithenig.
The result is an artificial sister language to French, Catalan, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Occitan and Italian which differs from them by having sound-changes similar to those that affected the Welsh language, and words that are borrowed from the [[w:Brittonic languages|Brittonic languages]] and from English throughout its pseudo-history. One important distinction between Brithenig and Welsh is that while Welsh is [[w:Gallo-Brittonic languages|P-Celtic]], Latin was a [[w:Osco-Umbrian_languages#Differences_from_Latin|Q-Italic language]] (as opposed to [[w:Osco-Umbrian_languages#Differences_from_Latin|P-Italic]], like [[w:Oscan language|Oscan]]), and this trait was passed onto Brithenig.


Similar efforts to extrapolate Romance languages are ''Breathanach'' (influenced by the other branch of Celtic), ''Judajca'' (influenced by Hebrew), ''Þrjótrunn'' (a non-Ill Bethisad language influenced by Icelandic), ''[[w:Wenedyk|Wenedyk]]'' (influenced by Polish), and ''Xliponian'' (which experienced a [[w:Grimm's law|Grimm's law]]-like sound shift). It has also inspired ''Wessisc'', a hypothetical Germanic language influenced by contact with Old Celtic.
Similar efforts to extrapolate Romance languages are ''Breathanach'' (influenced by the other branch of Celtic), ''Judajca'' (influenced by Hebrew), ''Þrjótrunn'' (a non-Ill Bethisad language influenced by Icelandic), ''[[Wenedyk]]'' (influenced by Polish), and ''Xliponian'' (which experienced a [[w:Grimm's law|Grimm's law]]-like sound shift). It has also inspired ''Wessisc'', a hypothetical Germanic language influenced by contact with Old Celtic.


Brithenig was granted the code BZT as part of [[w:ISO 639:b#bzt|ISO 639-3]].
Brithenig was granted the code BZT as part of [[w:ISO 639:b#bzt|ISO 639-3]].


Andrew Smith was one of the conlangers featured in the exhibit "Esperanto, Elvish, and Beyond: The World of Constructed Languages" displayed at the [[w:Cleveland Public Library|Cleveland Public Library]] from May through August 2008.<ref>[https://www.flickr.com/photos/26418663@N05/2478687117/ Esperanto, Elvish, and Beyond] ''[http://Flickr Flickr]''. Retrieved 2009-09-07.</ref> Smith's creation of Brithenig was cited as the reason for his inclusion in the exhibit (which also included the Babel Text<ref>[http://www.langmaker.com/babelintro.htm "Babel Text Introduction".] ''Langmarker''. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14. Retrieved 2009-09-07.</ref> in Smith's language).
Andrew Smith was one of the conlangers featured in the exhibit "Esperanto, Elvish, and Beyond: The World of Constructed Languages" displayed at the Cleveland Public Library from May through August 2008.<ref>Boozer, Donald (9 May 2008). [https://www.flickr.com/photos/26418663@N05/2478687117/ "Case 8: Meet the Conlangers, center"]. ''Flickr''. Cleveland Public Library. Retrieved 2009-09-07.</ref> Smith's creation of Brithenig was cited as the reason for his inclusion in the exhibit (which also included the Babel Text<ref>Henning, Jeffrey (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120414214923/http://www.langmaker.com/babelintro.htm "Babel Text Introduction"]. Langmaker. Conlang Profiles at Langmaker.com. Archived from [http://www.langmaker.com/babelintro.htm the original] on 2012-04-14. Retrieved 2009-09-07.</ref> in Smith's language).


==Introduction==
==Introduction==
Brithenig started as a thought-experement to create a Romance language that might have evolved if Latin speakers had been a sufficient number to displace Old Celtic as the spoken language of the people in Great Britain. The result is a sister language to French, Spanish and Italian, albeit a test-tube child, which differs from them by having sound-changes similar to those that affected the Welsh language, and words that are borrowed from Old Celtic, and from English throughout its `pseudo-history'. Although other Romance languages have Celtic influences, none of them are so thoroughly influenced as Brithenig.
Brithenig started as a thought-experement to create a Romance language that might have evolved if Latin speakers had been a sufficient number to displace Old Celtic as the spoken language of the people in Great Britain. The result is a sister language to French, Spanish and Italian, albeit a test-tube child, which differs from them by having sound-changes similar to those that affected the Welsh language, and words that are borrowed from Old Celtic, and from English throughout its 'pseudo-history'. Although other Romance languages have Celtic influences, none of them are so thoroughly influenced as Brithenig.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
{|
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="vertical-align: top;"
|
|
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Consonants
|+ Consonant phonemes
! Letter
! Pronunciation
|-
| Bb
| [b]
|-
| Cc
| [k], [t͡ʃ]
|-
| Dd
| [d]
|-
| Ff
| [v]
|-
| Gg
| [g], [d͡ʒ]
|-
|-
| Hh
!
| [h]
! colspan="2" | [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[w:Alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[w:Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]/<br>[[w:Palatal consonant|palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[w:Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
|-
| Kk
! [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| [k]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar nasal|n]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|-
| Ll
! [[w:stop consonant|Stop]]
| [l]
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced bilabial stop|b]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar stop|d]]
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | &nbsp;[[w:Voiceless velar stop|k]] {{angbr|k, c}} || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced velar stop|ɡ]] {{angbr|g}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
|-
| Mm
! [[w:Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| [m]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | &nbsp;[[w:Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate|t͡ʃ]] {{angbr|c}} || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced palato-alveolar affricate|d͡ʒ]] {{angbr|g}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|-
| Nn
! [[w:fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| [n]
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced labiodental fricative|v]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless alveolar sibilant|s]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar sibilant|z]] {{angbr|s}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] || style="border-left: 0;" |
|-
|-
| Pp
! [[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| [p]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced palatal approximant|j]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced labio-velar approximant|w]]
| colspan="2" |
|-
|-
| Rr
! [[w:Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
| [r]
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar lateral approximant|l]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|-
| Ss
! [[w:Trill consonant|Trill]]
| [z], [s]
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar trill|r]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|-
| Tt
| [t]
|-
| Ww
| [w]
|}
|}
|
|
{| class=wikitable
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Vowels
|+ Vowel phonemes
! Letter
! Pronunciation
|-
| Aa
| [a], [ə]
|-
|-
| Ee
! !! [[w:Front vowel|Front]] !! [[w:Central vowel|Central]] !! [[w:Back vowel|Back]]
| [ɛ], [ə]
|-
|-
| Ii
! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]
| [i], [ɪ]
| [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]] {{angbr|i, y}}|| [[w:Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] {{angbr|u}}|| [[w:Close back rounded vowel|u]] {{angbr|w}}
|-
|-
| Oo
! [[w:Near-close vowel|Near-close]]
| [ɔ]
| [[w:Near-close near-front unrounded vowel|ɪ]] {{angbr|i}}||  || [[w:Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ]] {{angbr|w}}
|-
|-
| Uu
! [[w:Mid- vowel|Mid]]
| [ɨ]
| || [[w:Mid-central vowel|ə]] {{angbr|a, e}}|| 
|-
|-
| Ww
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| [u], [ʊ]
| [[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] {{angbr|e}}|| || [[w:Open-mid back rounded vowel|ɔ]] {{angbr|o}}
|-
|-
| Yy
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]
| [i]
| [[w:Open front unrounded vowel|a]] || || 
|}
|}
|
{| class=wikitable
{| class=wikitable
|+Diphthongs
|+Diphthongs
Line 171: Line 174:
* The conjunctions '''e''', '''and''', and '''o''', '''or''' both cause softening to following nouns
* The conjunctions '''e''', '''and''', and '''o''', '''or''' both cause softening to following nouns
* Before these parts of speech, '''ll''' and '''rh''' do not do so before the article.
* Before these parts of speech, '''ll''' and '''rh''' do not do so before the article.
* The definate articles are exceptional and do not mutate.
* The definite articles are exceptional and do not mutate.
* The prepositions '''tra''', ''through'' and '''a''', ''to, at'' cause spirant mutation rather than softening.
* The prepositions '''tra''', ''through'' and '''a''', ''to, at'' cause spirant mutation rather than softening.
* Prepositions are pronounced in spoken Brithenig as though they were softened, although the written language does not reflect this:
* Prepositions are pronounced in spoken Brithenig as though they were softened, although the written language does not reflect this:
Line 183: Line 186:
3. The demonstrative pronoun 'that' is '''o''' masculine nouns and '''a''' for feminine nouns. The demonstrative pronoun '''yst''', 'this', is the same for nouns of both genders. The plural forms are '''ogyn''' and '''agyn''' for 'those' and '''ystyn''' for 'these'
3. The demonstrative pronoun 'that' is '''o''' masculine nouns and '''a''' for feminine nouns. The demonstrative pronoun '''yst''', 'this', is the same for nouns of both genders. The plural forms are '''ogyn''' and '''agyn''' for 'those' and '''ystyn''' for 'these'


'''O''' and '''a''' are not used as articles before nouns in modern Brithenig. For that the adverbs '''ci''', 'here', and '''llâ''', 'there', are added to the definate noun phrase. For example, 'this man' and 'that man' become '''ill of ci''' and '''ill hof llâ'''.
'''O''' and '''a''' are not used as articles before nouns in modern Brithenig. For that the adverbs '''ci''', 'here', and '''llâ''', 'there', are added to the definite noun phrase. For example, 'this man' and 'that man' become '''ill of ci''' and '''ill hof llâ'''.


4. Feminine nouns are referred to as '''sa''', 'she', masculine nouns as '''ys''', 'he'.
4. Feminine nouns are referred to as '''sa''', 'she', masculine nouns as '''ys''', 'he'.
Line 190: Line 193:
In Brithenig the plural ending has become silent and is no longer written. To indicate when a noun is plural the article changes from '''ill''' and '''lla''' to the plural form, '''llo'''. The plural article also causes spirant mutation:
In Brithenig the plural ending has become silent and is no longer written. To indicate when a noun is plural the article changes from '''ill''' and '''lla''' to the plural form, '''llo'''. The plural article also causes spirant mutation:


:'''ill of''' 'the man' -> '''llo h-ôn''' 'the men'
:'''ill of''' 'the man' → '''llo h-ôn''' 'the men'


'''ill of''' and '''llo h-ôn''' is one of the few cases in Brithenig where the singular and plural forms of the same noun are different.
'''ill of''' and '''llo h-ôn''' is one of the few cases in Brithenig where the singular and plural forms of the same noun are different.


:'''lla gas''' 'the house' -> '''llo chas''' 'the houses'
:'''lla gas''' 'the house' → '''llo chas''' 'the houses'


Among some speakers it seems that '''llo''' is loosing is definite quality and it is interpreted only as a plural marker. How, or if, they mark the definite plural noun has not been recorded.
Among some speakers it seems that '''llo''' is loosing is definite quality and it is interpreted only as a plural marker. How, or if, they mark the definite plural noun has not been recorded.
Line 216: Line 219:
:'''ill os''', ''bone'', '''lla os''', ''bones''
:'''ill os''', ''bone'', '''lla os''', ''bones''
:'''ill rham''', ''branch'', '''lla rham''', ''branches''
:'''ill rham''', ''branch'', '''lla rham''', ''branches''
Many of these have a collective meaning, '''lla freich''', ''a pair of arms joined to a body'', contrasted to '''llo freich''', ''arms'' in a general sense. This is often reinforced in natural pairs by adding '''dew''', ''two'', as a prefix: '''yn ddewfreich''', ''a pair of arms''.
The indefinite singular article is '''yn''', which also means 'one'. It also causes initial consonants to mutate on feminine nouns. The indefinite plural article is the preposition '''di''' combined with the definite article: '''di llo h-on''', ''some men''. In the spoken language it is contracted and pronounced as '''ddlo'''. The same happens with feminine plurals: '''ddla'''. However the creator himself doesn't favor this particular feature.{{efn|The creator of Brithenig thinks this is an ugly feature and doesn't use it. Any student of the language is free to make their own choice.}}
Common nouns must always have an article. A notable exception is a genitive construction that alternatives with the use of '''di''' as possessive marker in Brithenig. Normally the only way to say 'the man's house' in Romance languages is to rearrange it to mean 'the house of the man', '''lla gas di'll of'''. But there is an alternative form called the genitive construction. The preposition '''di''' is omitted along with the definite article of the possessed object. The possessed object comes first, followed by the possessor:
:'''cas ill of''', ''the man's house, the house of the man''
:'''cas yn of''', ''a man's house, the house of a man''
In this case the possessed object is always understood as being definite, it cannot be understood as 'a house of . . .' It is not uncommon in poetic literature, but can also be translated as '''lla gas di'll of''', or '''lla gas d'yn of'''. It is often avoided when the possessed object is plural to avoid confusion, as there is no way to indicate plurality other than context.
Many words expressing unspecified quantities, such as '''asset''', 'enough'; '''mullt''', 'many'; '''tan''', 'too much'; are also followed by '''di'''.
Brithenig has three suffixes which are used on nouns, two diminutives and one augmentative. -'''ith''' is the usual diminutive, '''teithith''', 'little roof, circumflex', -'''in''' implies affection, Tomin, 'Tommy'. It is also used on collective nouns, '''plentin''', 'child', from '''plant''', 'children'. The augmentative is -'''un''', '''ofun''', 'big man'. Treat them as very productive.
Brithenig has cases of i-mutation in its history, which cause a to become e, and u to become y. These cases are distinct from the normal letters e and i because they do not cause c and g to become the soft affricate sounds of 'tch' and 'j'. Technically the diminutive suffixes cause these vowels to change, but it is not strictly adhered to in spoken Brithenig.
=== Pronouns ===
Pronouns have separate subject and object forms:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject !! English !! Object !! English
|-
| '''eo''' || ''I'' ||'''mi''' ||''me''
|-
|'''ty''' ||''you'' ||'''ti''' ||''you''
|-
|'''ys''' ||''he'' ||'''llo''' ||''him''
|-
|'''sa''' ||''she'' ||'''lla''' ||''her''
|-
|'''nu''' ||''we'' ||'''nu''' ||''us''
|-
|'''gw''' ||''you'' ||'''gw''' ||''you''
|-
|'''ys''' ||''they'' ||'''llo''' ||''them''
|-
|'''sa''' ||''they'' ||'''lla''' ||''them''
|}
Brithenig has two ways of saying you: '''ty''', ''thou'', and '''gw''', ''you''. '''Ty''' is singular and used for addressing people that the speaker is familiar with, such as an immediate family member, a close friend, a child, an animal, or god. '''Gw''' is used as a singular when speaking to a stranger or a less familiar or more formal acquaintance. It is also used to address more than one person no matter the familiarity. Pronouns are subject to consonant mutation in the same way other words are. If '''ty''' or '''ti''' is mutated it is always written as '''dy''' to avoid confusion with the preposition '''di''', which has a different pronunciation. '''Fi''', the mutated form of '''mi''', becomes ''''i''' in the spoken language, especially after consonants.
'''Sa''' is used to mean 'they' when 'they' is exclusively feminine. For 'it' use the form appropriate to the gender of the noun. The impersonal pronoun 'it' is always '''sa''': '''Sa es fel eidd''', ''It is nice today''.
There is a third person reflexive pronoun '''si''', '''himself, themselves (etc.)'''; it is used as the object case with the indefinite subject, '''yno''', '''one', 'people', 'they''', derived from '''yn of''', ''a man''.
The direct object form of the pronoun have the option of coming before or after a simple verb, but with a compound tense or an infinitive used in the sentence, it can only come after the past participle or the infinitive, to which it may be hyphenated.
'''Mi''', '''ti''' and '''si''' also have special disjunctive forms '''mui''' or '''fui''', '''tui''' or '''dui''' or '''thui''', and '''sui'''. These are used after prepositions, after the conjunction '''ca''', ''than'', or when a sentence uses two pronouns as objects:
:'''Eo widdef tui e llo in ill castr''', ''I saw you and him in town''
The disjunctive pronouns can also be emphatic, repeating the object pronoun:
:'''Eo dy af tui''', ''I love you!''
Unlike English, subject pronouns and nouns always go in the order of first person (I, we), second person, (you), and third person (he, she, it, they). The verb usually agrees in number with the nearest subject:
:'''Eo e Badrig gwa a'll castr''', ''Patrick and I are going to town''.
Similar is the use of the third person dative pronoun '''lle''' in place of '''llo''' or '''lla''' after a preposition. By itself it means 'to him, her, it, them' and can come before the simple verb or after it like a direct object pronoun, but with a preposition it can only come after the verb. Possessive pronouns precede the noun. Feminine singular nouns take the soft mutation after possessive pronouns, and plural nouns take the spirant mutation, masculine singular nouns do not mutate after possessive pronouns:
{|
|-
| '''mew''', ||''my''
|-
|'''tew''', ||''your''
|-
|'''sew''', ||''his, her, its''
|-
|'''nustr''', ||''our''
|-
|'''gwstr''', ||''your''
|-
|'''sew''', ||''their''
|}
'''Sew''' may refer to 'his, her, its or their'. To avoid ambiguity the phrase can be followed with the preposition '''di''' and '''llo, lla''' to clarify the meaning. With other pronouns this is used to be an emphatic construction:
:'''mew gas''', ''my house''
:'''mew gas di fui''', ''MY house''
The forms 'mine, yours, his (etc)' are translated into Brithenig as 'my one' or 'my ones' (etc):
{|
|-
| '''mew yn, mew hyn''', ||''mine''
|-
|'''nustr yn, nustr hyn''', ||''ours''
|-
|'''tew yn, tew hyn''', ||''yours''
|-
|'''gwstr yn, gwstr hyn''', ||''yours''
|-
|'''sew yn, sew hyn''', ||''his, hers, its, theirs''
|}
'''llo, lla''' do not mutate, but other pronouns do. The indirect object is often written with a preposition such as '''a''', ''to'' where the mutated forms are used: '''Ys dun yn llifr a fui''', ''He gives me (to me) a book''.
This is the usual order in Brithenig.
Brithenig has one case of personal prepositions which are derived from '''cun''', ''with''. Sometimes speakers reinforce the prepositions by prefixing ''cun-'', but the first forms are more common:
{|
|-
| '''meg, cunmeg''', ||''with me''
|-
|'''nusc, cunnusc''', ||''with us''
|-
|'''teg, cunneg''', ||''with you''
|-
|'''gwsc, cungwsc''', ||''with you''
|-
|'''seg, cunseg''', ||''with him, her, them, it''
|}
=== Adjectives ===
Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender and number. Plural adjectives take the spirant mutation to agree with plural nouns. Feminine adjectives take the soft mutation when following feminine nouns. Adjectives tend to follow the noun. Only the adjectives '''bon''', ''good'', and '''mal''', '''bad''', can be used without any uncertainty before a noun. When an adjective precedes a noun it has a figurative rather than a literal meaning. This effects only a couple of adjectives: '''pobr''', ''poor'', has the meaning of 'destitute' after the noun, but 'unfortunate' when it comes before the noun. Likewise with '''gran''', '''big, large''', when it precedes the noun it means ''importance'', not ''size'':
:'''Yn gran of''', ''a great man''
:'''Yn of gran''', ''a big man''
:'''Yn gran ddiwrn''', ''a great day''
Note that the initial consonant undergoes softening after a preceding adjective.
'''sul''' can come before or after the noun with a difference in meanings. After the noun it means 'lonely', '''yn blentin sul''', '''a lonely child'''. Before a noun, it means 'only', '''yn sul blentin''', '''an only child'''.
Brithenig can use an adjective as a noun by putting an article in front of it. It then refers to an object that has that quality: '''ill rhys''', ''the red one''; '''llo phog''', ''the little ones''.
For a comparative of an adjective, Brithenig puts the words '''ply''', ''more'' and '''min''', ''less'' before an adjective, with the spirant mutation of the initial consonant of the following adjective. 'Than' is translated as '''ca''': '''ply hallt ca yn gas''', '''taller than a house'''.
The superlative is formed by putting the definite article suitable for the gender of the noun before the comparative adjective: '''ill ply hallt''', '''the tallest''. When a noun is qualified, the definite article goes in front of the noun, replacing '''yn''': '''lla gas bly hallt''', ''the tallest house''. It is omitted if the noun is proceeded by a possessive pronoun:
:'''ill llifr ci es sew ober feilwr di llo''', ''this book is his best work''
:'''mew ffradr maer''', ''my older/oldest brother''
Following a superlative the preposition '''di''' is used:
:'''ill tyr ci es ill ply hallt di lla giwdad''', ''this tower is the tallest in the city''
If this is getting too complicated then the suffix '''-isaf''', '''very''' can replace the superlative sometimes:
:'''lla giwdad ci es felisaf''', ''this city is very beautiful''
Certain adjectives are irregular:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Adjective !! English !! Comparative !! English
|-
| '''bon''' ||''good'' ||'''meilwr''' ||''better''
|-
|'''mal''' ||''bad'' ||'''puir''' ||''worse''
|-
|'''gran''' ||''big'' ||'''maer''' ||''bigger''
|-
|'''pog''' ||''little'' ||'''min''' ||''less''
|-
|'''mal''' ||''badly'' ||'''pui''' ||''worse'' (adverb)
|-
|'''ben''' ||''well'' ||'''myl''' ||''better'' (adverb)
|}
The superlative form of these adjectives is the comparative form with the definite article, as per usual.
Most adverbs are derived from adjectives by adding the ending '''-fent'''. In spoken Brithenig this is usually pronounced 'fen' but the t is still written:
:'''bel''', ''beautiful'' → '''belfent''', ''beautifully''.
Adverbs cause soft mutation on following words.
=== Verbs ===
Verb endings change for person, number and tense. The infinitive is indicated with endings '''-ar, -er, -ir'''. The '''-r''' is usually left unpronounced. Brithenig verbs are divided into three conjugations according to which infinitive ending the verb takes:
'''Canhar''' ''to sing''
'''Perdder''' ''to lose''
'''Dorfir''' ''to sleep''
In a sentence the infinitive is mutated more often than not due to the preposition '''a''' before the verb. The preposition is then dropped but the mutation is preserved. With auxiliaries the infinitive is unmutated. It is the unmutated form that is recorded in the lexicon. It used with other prepositions where English prefers to use `-ing':
'''Eo wa per yn turn inawant gweddir a'll lleith''', ''`I go for a walk before going to bed'''
'''Dibos rher-mi eo bran''', ''`After getting up I have breakfast'''
It is also used to replace the past tense:
'''Eo fi ref a ffôner-lla''', ''I got up and phoned her''
The preposition '''subr''', ''on'' is translated as 'about to' before the infinitive:
'''Eo er subr ffôner-gw''', ''I was about to phone you''.
The present indicative describes an action happening at the present time:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo gant
|eo berdd
|eo ddorf
|-
|ty gant
|ty berdd
|ty ddorf
|-
|ys cant
|ys perdd
|ys dorf
|-
|sa gant
|sa berdd
|sa ddorf
|-
|nu chanhan
|nu pherdden
|nu ddorfen
|-
|gw chanhath
|gw pherddeth
|gw ddorfith
|-
|ys/sa chanhant
|ys/sa pherddent
|ys/sa ddorfent
|}
Brithenig distinguishes different endings to go with each person and and number. The singular forms are unmarked, '''-n''' goes with '''nu''', '''-nt''' goes with '''ys''' and '''sa''' when they are plural, and '''-th''' goes with '''gw''', and '''-nt''' goes with ys and '''sa''' when they are plural. The `-t' on the third person plural ending is silent, in the spoken language there is no difference between this and the ending of the first person plural verb. Also the initial consonant undergoes soft mutation in the singular verb (except after '''ys''') or spirant mutation in the plural verb. Just as standard English always indicates the third person singular with the ending -s (he carries), so these endings must also always be used in Brithenig. If an object pronoun is inserted before the verb, then the verb always undergoes mutation, soft before a singular pronoun, spirant before a plural pronoun.
A verb is reflexive when when its subject and object are the same person: '''eo fi law''', ''I wash (myself)''; in Brithenig the object is not omitted.
'''Llawarsi''', ''to wash oneself'':
{| class="wikitable"
|eo fi law
|nu nu lawan
|-
|ty dy law
|gw 'w lawath
|-
|ys/sa si law
|ys/sa si lawant
|}
In speech the first `w' on '''gw 'w''' loses it vocalic quality and the combination is pronounced ''`gwoo'''.
Sometimes `myself', etc are used for emphasis and not as the object of a reflexive verb. In such cases it is translated as '''medissif''':
'''Eo fedissif widd llo char''', ''I see the cars myself''.
Brithenig makes the present participle by replacing the infinitive ending with '''-n''':
'''canhan''' ''singing''
'''perdden''' ''losing''
'''dorfin''' ''sleeping''
It forms a progressive tense with the verb '''ystar''', ''`to stand''':
'''Eo yst canhan''': ''I am singing''
'''Ys ystafant dorfin''': ''they were sleeping''
The present participle can also be an adjective:
'''ill of dorfin''', ''the sleeping man''
'''Lla ffuin ganhan''', ''the singing woman''
The Latin gerund ending in ''-nt'', still exists in a handful of words in Brithenig that are used as adjectives and nouns, such as '''afent''', ''wealthy'', and '''president''', ''president''. But the survival of these is an historic feature and not a productive one, in Brithenig the present participle has taken over the role of the gerund.
The past participle has the ending '''-d''':
'''canhad''' ''sung''
'''perdded''' ''lost''
'''dorfid''' ''slept''
Some past participles are irregular:
'''ffaeth''', ''done, made'', from '''ffager''', ''to do, to make'';
'''dith''', ''said'' from '''diger''', ''to say'';
'''yscrith''', ''written'' from '''yscrifer''', ''to write'';
'''duith''', ''led'' from '''duger''', ''to lead'';
'''gwist''', ''seen'' from '''gwidder''', ''to see'';
'''rhuth''', ''broken'' from '''rhumper''', ''to break'';
'''clos''', ''closed'' from '''clodder''', ''to close'';
'''morth''', ''dead'' from '''morir''', ''to die''.
The forms of the imperfect are:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ganhaf
|eo berddef
|eo ddorfif
|-
|ty ganhaf
|ty berddef
|ty ddorfif
|-
|ys canhaf
|ys perddef
|ys dorfif
|-
|sa ganhaf
|sa berddef
|sa ddorfif
|-
|nu chanafan
|nu pherddefan
|nu ddorfifan
|-
|gw chanafath
|gw pherddefath
|gw ddorfifath
|-
|ys/sa chanafant
|ys/sa pherddefant
|ys/sa ddorfifant
|}
The imperfect is used to describe an action that happened in the past that is not concluded at this point due to it being an ongoing action, an interpreted action or an habitual action. So '''Eo ganhaf''' can be interpreted as either `I sang', `I was singing', or `I used to sing'.
`I was singing' can also be translated as '''eo ystaf canhan'''.
Remember that the final '''-f''' on the singular verb is silent.
The past definite describes a completed and unrepeatable action that happened in the past. Some verb endings have been lost and replaced with the imperfect, or with a compound past tense:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ganhaf
|eo berddef
|eo ddorfif
|-
|ty ganhast
|ty berddest
|ty ddorfist
|-
|ys canhaf
|ys perddef
|ys dorfif
|-
|sa ganhaf
|sa berddef
|sa ddorfif
|-
|nu chanafan
|nu pherddefan
|nu ddorfifan
|-
|gw chanhast
|gw pherddest
|gw ddorfist
|-
|ys/sa channarent
|ys/sa pherdderent
|ys/sa ddorfirent
|}
The past definite is used particularly to describe an historical event; or in connection with a temporal adverb or adverbial phrase; or a `when' phrase; or a conclusive and final action.
There are a small number of verbs where the past definite is irregular, one such verb is '''diger''', ''to say'':
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ddis
|nu ddisen
|-
|ty ddisist
|gw ddisist
|-
|ys dis/sa ddis
|ys/sa ddisirent
|}
Other irregular verbs are:
'''Clos''' from '''clodder''', ''to close'';
'''Compruis''' from '''comprêner''', ''to understand'';
'''Cyrs''' from '''cyrrir''', ''to run'';
'''Duis''' from '''duger''', ''to lead'';
'''Lleis''' from '''lleir''', ''to read'';
'''Mis''' from '''mither''', ''to send'';
'''Tens''' from '''tener''', ''to stretch''.
The future tense is translated `I will' or `I shall'. It is formed by adding the endings '''-ai''', '''-a''', '''-a''', '''-an''', '''-ath''', '''-ant''' to the infinitive. All Brithenig verbs use these endings in the future tense:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ganarai
|eo berdderai
|eo ddorfirai
|-
|ty ganara
|ty berddera
|ty ddorfira
|-
|ys canara
|ys perddera
|ys dorfira
|-
|sa ganara
|sa berddera
|sa ddorfira
|-
|nu chanaran
|nu pherdderan
|nu ddorfiran
|-
|gw chanarath
|gw pherdderath
|gw ddorfirath
|-
|ys/sa chanarant
|ys/sa pherdderant
|ys/sa ddorfirant
|}
For the immediate future tense Brithenig can use '''gweddir''', ''`go''' with the infinitive tense of the verb:
'''Eo wa wenir gwsc''', ''I am going to come with you''.
The conditional tense translates to mean `might', `could', `would' or `should'. It is formed by adding a '''-ew''' ending to the infinitive:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ganarew
|eo berdderew
|eo ddorfirew
|-
|ty ganarew
|ty berdderew
|ty ddorfirew
|-
|ys canarew
|ys perdderew
|ys dorfirew
|-
|sa ganarew
|sa berdderew
|sa ddorfirew
|-
|nu chanarewn
|nu pherdderewn
|nu ddorfirewn
|-
|gw chanarewth
|gw pherdderewth
|gw ddorfirewth
|-
|ys/sa chanarewnt
|ys/sa pherdderewnt
|ys/sa ddorfirewnt
|}
The conditional is used to indicate a future tense to a past action. It is used in indirect speech after a verb used to communicate ideas:
'''Ys yscrifera yn garth''' ''He will write a letter''
'''Ys digef (ke) ys yscriferew yn garth''' ''He said that he would write a letter''
The conditional tense is also used in a sentence after an `if' clause:
'''Se eo w h-er, eo ffagerew rhen''' ''If I were you, I would not do it.''
'''Se eo ai gwist-llo, eo afrew parolad a lle''' ''If I had seen him, I would have spoken to him.''
If the second clause does not have the sense of an action ''not'' happening then another tense replaces the conditional:
'''Se ys gwen eo barolarai a lle''' ''If he comes I will speak to him''.
The conditional is also used in describing non-specific repetitive action in the past:
'''I llo ddiwrn llâ nu h-amblarewn sempr a'll castr''', ''In those days we would always walk into town'', or, ''In those days we always used to walk into town''.
The relative pronoun '''ke''', ''`who, what, which, that''' is often omitted in Brithenig, especially the spoken language. '''Ke''' is the most common form of the relative pronoun. The alternative '''ill cal''' is used to avoid ambiguity in a sentence. It is variable in gender and number and cannot be omitted. '''Ke''' is more often encountered in speech.
`Whose' can be translated by '''ke sew''' before the noun or by '''di'll cal''' after it. `When' and `where' are translated respectively as '''can''' and '''ill llog (ke)'''.
Brithenig uses disjunctive pronouns in dependent clauses:
'''Lla garth (k') eo yscrifef lla''', ''The letter that I wrote''
'''Lla ffuin (k') eo barolaf seg''', ''The woman that I spoke with''
The subjunctive tenses are no longer productive in modern Brithenig. They only survive in proverbial phrases such as:
'''Can in Rhufein, ffâ si llo Rhufan ffeigant''', ''When in Rome, do as the Romans do''.
There are two subjunctive tenses, past and present. The present tense is distinctive that it includes i-mutation in all three conjunctions, if only partially in the '''-ar''' conjunction. ''A, e,'' and ''o'' in the stem become ''ei'', ''u'' becomes ''y'', and ''aw'', when it occurs, becomes ''ew''; ''i'' is unaffected. The vowels in the ending also change, for '''-er''' and '''-ir''' verbs it becomes ''a'', while for '''-ar''' verbs it becomes ''e''.
{| class="wikitable"
|eo gant
|eo beirdd
|eo ddeirf
|-
|ty gant
|ty beirdd
|ty ddeirf
|-
|ys cant
|ys peidd
|ys deirf
|-
|sa gant
|sa beirdd
|sa ddeirf
|-
|nu cheinhen
|nu pheirddan
|nu ddeirfan
|-
|gw cheinheth
|gw pheirddath
|gw ddeirfath
|-
|ys/sa chanhent
|ys/sa pheirddant
|ys/sa ddeirfant
|-
|}
The past subjunctive is simpler and is made by infixing '''-ss(e)''' between the normal stem and the ending:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ganhas
|eo berddes
|eo ddorfis
|-
|ty ganhas
|ty berddes
|ty ddorfis
|-
|ys canhas
|ys perddes
|ys dorfis
|-
|sa ganhas
|sa berddes
|sa dorfis
|-
|nu chanassen
|nu pherddessen
|nu ddorfissen
|-
|gw chanasseth
|gw pherddesseth
|gw ddorfisseth
|-
|ys/sa chanassent
|ys/sa pherddessent
|ys/sa ddorfissent
|}
Compound tenses are made with two new verbs, '''esser''', ''`to be''' and '''afer''', ''`to have'''. They are irregular and do not conform to the three conjugations that have been given so far. Present tense:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo su
|nu sun
|eo ai
|nu hafen
|-
|ty es
|gw hes
|ty a
|gw hafeth
|-
|ys/sa es
|ys/sa sunt
|ys/s' a
|ys/sa hant
|}
Participles:
{| class="wikitable"
|Present:
|Past:
|-
|essen
|ystad (from '''ystar''', ''`to stand')''
|-
|afen
|afyd
|}
Imperfect:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo er
|nu h-eran
|eo afef
|nu h-afefan
|-
|ty er
|gw h-erath
|ty afef
|gw h-afefath
|-
|ys/sa er
|ys/sa h-erant
|ys/s' afef
|ys/sa h-afefant
|}
Past Definite:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ffew
|nu ffewns
|eo afew
|nu h-afewn
|-
|ty ffewst
|gw ffewth
|ty afew
|gw h-afewth
|-
|ys/sa ffew
|ys/sa ffewrent
|ys/sa afew
|ys/sa h-afewrent
|}
Future:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo serai
|nu seran
|eo afrai
|nu h-afran
|-
|ty sera
|gw serath
|ty afra
|nu h-afrath
|-
|ys/sa sera
|ys/sa serant
|ys/sa afra
|ys/sa h-afrant
|}
Present Subjunctive:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo sia
|nu sian
|eo ai
|nu h-aian
|-
|ty sia
|gw siath
|ty ai
|gw h-aiath
|-
|ys/sa sia
|ys/sa siant
|ys/sa ai
|ys/sa h-aiant
|}
'''Sia''' is pronounced as ''sha'' in the present subjunctive of 'to be'.
Past Subjunctive:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo ffews
|nu ffewssen
|eo afews
|nu h-afewssen
|-
|ty ffews
|gw ffewsseth
|ty afews
|gw h-afewsseth
|-
|ys/sa ffews
|ys/sa ffewssent
|ys/sa afews
|ys/sa h-afewssent
|}
'''Gweddir''', ''to go'' is irregular in the present tense:
{| class="wikitable"
|eo wa
|nu wan
|-
|ty wa
|gw wath
|-
|ys gwa/sa wa
|ys/sa want
|}
Otherwise the verb is regular and uses the longer stem.
The word for `not' is '''rhen'''. It comes after the verb phrase:
'''eo su rhen''', ''`I am not'''
With verbs beginning with p, t, c, b, d, g, the nasal mutation is used on all verbs beginning with these letters when they are followed by a negative adverb:
'''Eo nghant rhen''', ''I do not sing''.
'''Gw mherddefan rhen''', ''you did not lose''.
'''Ys norfira rhen''', ''he will not sleep''.
Similar to '''rhen''' is '''nonc''', ''`never'''. In questions 'ever' is translated as '''nonc''':
'''E'gw ystad nonc ci inawant?''' ''<nowiki/>'Have you ever been here before?'''
'''No, eo su ystad nonc ci inawant''', ''No, I have never been here before.''
'''Rhen''' is also used before nouns, '''rhen llaeth''', ''`no milk'''.
`There is' or `there are' is '''sa es''':
'''Sa es yn char''', ''`There are some cars'''.
When an object follows a negative verb then the preposition '''di''' is inserted between the verb and the following noun. Literally this would be translated as 'none of':
'''Sa es rhen di yn char''', '''There aren't any cars'''
=== Numbers ===
{| class="wikitable"
|1
|yn
|6
|sei
|11
|yndig
|16
|yn e ghindig
|-
|2
|dew
|7
|seth
|12
|dewddig
|17
|dew e ghindig
|-
|3
|trui
|8
|oeth
|13
|truiddig
|18
|dewnoe
|-
|4
|cathr
|9
|noe
|14
|cathorddig
|19
|cathr e ghindig
|-
|5
|cinc
|10
|deg
|15
|kindig
|20
|gweint
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|21
|yn e weint
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|30
|deg e weint
|40
|dew weint
|-
|50
|deg e ddew weint
|60
|trui weint
|-
|70
|deg e drui weint
|80
|cathr gweint
|-
|90
|deg e gathr gweint
|100
|cent
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|1000
|mil
|1000000
|milliwn
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|0
|sero, rhen
|.
|puith
|}
Numbers precede the noun being counted. '''Yn''' causes feminine nouns to soften; '''dew''', '''trui''' and '''sei''' cause following nouns to undergo spirant mutation; other numbers come before nouns without causing mutation. When the noun following '''dew''' and '''trui''' is a feminine collective of a masculine noun (see above under nouns) then the noun undergoes soft mutation rather than spirant mutation.
Before a noun '''cinc''', '''gweint''' and '''cent''' become '''cin''', '''gwein''' and '''cen'''. The noun being counted is always singular.
Big numbers are put before nouns in two different ways:
'''yn of e ghindig''', ''sixteen men''
'''yn e ghindig di llo hof''', ''sixteen (of the) men''
Ordinal numbers exist for one to ten:
{| class="wikitable"
|1st
|prif
|6th
|seist
|-
|2nd
|segunn
|7th
|sethif
|-
|3rd
|terth
|8th
|oethif
|-
|4th
|carth
|9th
|noef
|-
|5th
|kint
|10th
|degif
|}
In shorthand these are reduced to the number and the last two letters of the ordinal spelling.
`Once, twice, three times' are made with using the cardinal number with the noun '''gweg''': '''yn weg''', '''dew weg''', '''trui weg''', '''cathr gweg'''.
==Syntax==
=== Questions ===
Questions are formed by changing the word order of the subject and the verb:
'''Gw pharolath Brithenig''', ''`You speak Brithenig'''.
'''Parola'gw Frithenig?''', ''`Do you speak Brithenig?''
Note the change in sentence order causes softening to occur on following words. Also the '''-th''' ending on the verb has been elided.
When the subject is a noun it remains before the verb but the equivalent pronoun is placed after the verb:
'''Ill car es llâ''', ''`the car is there'''
'''Ill car es-ys llâ?''', ''`is the car there?''
Brithenig has a set of question words similar to English:
'''Ki?''', ''who?''
'''Di ghi?''', ''whose?''
'''Ke?''', ''which?''
'''Ke gos?''', ''what?''
'''K'log?''', ''where?''
'''A g'log?''', ''to where?''
'''Di g'log?''', ''from where?''
'''Co?''', ''how, what kind of?''
'''Cant?''', ''how much, how many?''
'''Ke sig?''', ''how?''
'''Ke dem?''', ''when?''
'''Perch?''', ''why?''
Question words come at the beginning of sentences, except for '''di ghi''':
'''Ke gar es-o?''', ''Which car is that?''
'''Ill car di ghi es-o?''', ''Whose car is that?''
'''Co'''and '''ke''' replace the article and cause softening. Other question words which act adverbially cause following verbs to soften.
'''Ke sig?''' is used with adjectives:
'''Ke si wirdd er gwstr cum?''', ''`How green was your valley?''
In answering the word order is retained with the question word replaced:
'''Ke gos es gwstr nôn? - Rhaifun eo affell''', ''`What is your name? - I am called Ray'.''
Brithenig speakers can put the interrogative tag '''es-sa rhen''', ''isn't it?'' at the end of sentences. The tense of the verb and the number and gender of the pronoun may change, but, unlike English, the negative '''rhen''' is not dropped:
'''Gw h-affellath Padrig, es-ys rhen?''', ''Your name is Patrick, is it not?''
'''Ty fi nglafaf rhen, er-ty rhen?''', ''You didn't call me, did you?''
=== Commands ===
The most common form of making a command is to add '''-th''' to the verb; '''Gwenith per yn turn''', ''`Come for a walk'''. The familiar form of the command drops the ending along with the final vowel; '''Llaes mi sulfent''', ''`Leave me alone'''.
Some imperative forms are irregular, being derived from a subjunctive tense which is no longer used in the spoken language:
'''Esser''', ''to be'', '''siath, sia''' (pronounced 'shath, sha')
'''Gwoler''', ''to wish'', '''gwolath, gwol'''
'''Afer''', ''to have'', '''aiath, ai'''
'''Saber''', ''to know'', '''seibath, seib'''
Three verbs have very curt familiar forms:
'''Diger''', ''to say'', '''digeth, dî'''
'''Duger''', ''to lead'', '''dugeth, dû'''
'''Ffager''', ''to make, to do'', '''ffageth, ffâ'''
The replacement of a blunt imperative with '''ffager''' is considered polite:
'''Ffageth (a) wenir per yn turn''', ''`Do come for a walk'''
'''Ffagewth (a) wenir per yn turn''', ''`Would you come for a walk'''
The verb '''calfar''', ''to stop, cease'' is used to mean `don't':
'''Calfath (a) wedder''', ''Don't go''.
'''Calfath (a) weisar''', ''Never mind''
'''Gwan''' from '''gweddir''', ''to go'' is used before another verb to mean `let's'. On its own it means `let's go'.
And always say: '''Se ddeg a'w''', ''Please''; and '''Greid''', ''Thank you''; and '''Sa es nyll''', ''You're welcome, it's nothing''. Brithenig speakers value courtesy and these little words will help to keep a learner in good standing every time he or she uses them.
'Mr' is '''ill maistr''', 'Mrs, Miss' is '''lla faistres'''. The article is omitted when addressing someone by name. '''maistr''' and '''maistres''' are also used for sir and madam.


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
Line 285: Line 1,219:
|}
|}


==Example==
==Sample texts==
[[Literature:The Lord's prayer|The Lord's Prayer]]:
=== [[Literature:The Lord's prayer|The Lord's Prayer]] ===
:Nustr Padr, ke sia i llo gel:
:Nustr Padr, ke sia i llo gel:
:sia senghid tew nôn:
:sia senghid tew nôn:
Line 299: Line 1,233:
:Per ill rheon, ill cofaeth e lla leir es ill tew,
:Per ill rheon, ill cofaeth e lla leir es ill tew,
:per segl e segl. Amen.
:per segl e segl. Amen.
=== The Tower of Babel, Genesis 11:1-9 ===
:(''This is a very early text, and hasn't been revised.'')
{|
|-
| Agur ill mun inteir afew yn llinghedig e yn cant comyn. Sig ill pobl sumodefant di'll llewent, ys ligarent yn lluin in Senar e llâ si ysteblirent.
Ys ddisirent a sew alltr, "Gwath, gwan a ffager yn fric e gogher llo hinteirfent." Ys hýsafant llo fric in ill llog di'll pedr, e yn aerell per ill kelchin. Affos ys ddisirent, "Gwath, gwan a eddiffigar yn giwdad per nu, cun yn tyr ke dang a llo chel, ke nu ffagen yn nôn per nu e sun ysparied rhen syrs feig lla der inteir."
Mai ill Dôn gwenif a fas a widder lla giwdad e'll tyr ke'll pobl eddiffigafant. Ill Dôn dis, "Ech, alltresig yn pobl ke barol ill llinghedig medissif, ys hyst ant cýnidiad a ffager. Agur sa sera negarad rhen a llo ke ys phrofarewnt a ffager. Gwath, gwan a fas a ystyrddir sew linghedig sig ys nhomprênerewnt rhen sew alltr."
Sig ill Dôn llo hyspariaf di llâ syrs lla der inteir, e ys chalfarent a eddiffigar lla giwdad. A es perch sa affell Babel -- perch llâ ill Dôn ystyrdd llinghedig ill mun inteir. Di llâ ill Dôn llo hyspariaf syrs ffeig lla der inteir.
|| ''Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. As the people moved from the east, they found a plain in Sennar and there established themselves.''
''They said to each other, "Come, let us make bricks and cook them thoroughly." They used bricks for stone, and clay for mortar. Then they said, "Come, let us build a city for ourselves, with a tower that touches the heavens, that we make a name for ourselves and are not scattered over the face of the entire land."''
''But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower that the people were building. The Lord said, "See, just as a people who speak the same language, they have begun to do this. Now it will not be denied to them that they would try to do. Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand each other.''
''So the Lord scattered them from there over the entire land, and they stopped building the city. That is why it is called Babel -- because there the Lord confused the language of the entire world. From there the Lord scattered them over the face of the entire land.''
|}


==Notes==
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
<references group="lower-alpha"/>


==References==
==References==
* "URUK: The construction of multilingualism in an electronic knowledge management tool". Geolinguistics. American Society of Geolinguistics. 25–26: 255. 1999. ISSN 0190-4671.
{{Reflist}}
* [http://interkom.vecnost.cz/pdf/ik200803cl.pdf Havliš, Jan (March 2008). "Výlet do Conlangey"] (PDF). Interkom (in Czech). 243: 17–21.
* Vandepitte, Sonia; De Grotte, Carine; Verplaetse, Heidi; Denturk, Kathelijne; Vervenne, Dirk; Godyns, Rita; Kaczmarski, Peter; Gierts, Stephane; Vandamme, Fernand (2005). "URUK: the construction of multilingualism in an electronic knowledge management tool". ''Geolinguistics''. The American Society of Geolinguistics: 145–156. [[w:hdl (identifier)|hdl]]:[http://hdl.handle.net/1854/LU-687479 1854/LU-687479]. [[w:ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0190-4671 0190-4671].
* Frawley, William J., ed. (2003). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. p. 154.
* Havliš, Jan (2008). Rampas, Zdeněk (ed.). [http://interkom.vecnost.cz/pdf/ik200803cl.pdf "Výlet do Conlangey"] (PDF). ''Interkom''. Kvark (in Czech). No. 2008/3. Prague. pp. 17–21. [[w:ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1212-9089 1212-9089].
* Parkvall, Mikael (2008). Limits of Language: Almost Everything You Didn't Know You Didn't Know about Language and Languages. Wilsonville: Battlebridge Publications. pp. 91–93, 131. OCLC 70894631.
* Nicholas, Nick (2003). "Artificial languages". In Frawley, William J. (ed.). ''International Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. '''1''' (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 154–155. [[w:ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516783-X 0-19-516783-X].
* Parkvall, Mikael (2008). ''Limits of language: almost everything you didn't know you didn't know about language and languages''. Battlebridge Publications. pp. 91–93, 131. [[w:OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70894631 70894631].


==External links==
==External links==
* {{cite web |url=http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/introduction.html |title=The Page of Brithenig |last=Smith |first=Andrew |date=23 December 2007 |website=Andrew's Homepage |location=Dunedin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529072556/http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/introduction.html |archive-date=2009-05-29 |access-date=2015-09-07 |url-status=dead }}
* Smith, Andrew (n.d.). [https://web.archive.org/web/20090529072556/http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/introduction.html "Introduction to Brithenig"]. Archived from [http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/introduction.html the original] on 2009-05-29.
* {{Cite web |url=http://www.bethisad.com/ |title=Ill Bethisad |website=bethisad.com |last=Brown |first=Padraic |access-date=2015-09-07|display-authors=etal}}
* Brown, Padraic; et al. (n.d.). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190911064723/http://www.bethisad.com/ "Ill Bethisad"]. Archived from [http://www.bethisad.com/ the original] on 2019-09-11. Retrieved 2015-09-07.
* {{Cite web |url=http://www.geonames.de/wl-romance.html |title=Romance glossary |last=Fröhlich |first=Werner |website=geonames.de |access-date=2015-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605163536/http://www.geonames.de/wl-romance.html |archive-date=2008-06-05 |url-status=dead }}
* Fröhlich, Werner (n.d.). [https://web.archive.org/web/20200623001426/geonames.de/wl-romance.html "Romance glossary"]. ''geocities - Countries and Languages of the World''. Archived from [https://geonames.de/wl-romance.html the original] on 2020-06-23. Retrieved 2015-09-07.
 
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