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* The conjunctions '''e''', '''and''', and '''o''', '''or''' both cause softening to following nouns | * The conjunctions '''e''', '''and''', and '''o''', '''or''' both cause softening to following nouns | ||
* Before these parts of speech, '''ll''' and '''rh''' do not do so before the article. | * Before these parts of speech, '''ll''' and '''rh''' do not do so before the article. | ||
* The | * The definite articles are exceptional and do not mutate. | ||
* The prepositions '''tra''', ''through'' and '''a''', ''to, at'' cause spirant mutation rather than softening. | * The prepositions '''tra''', ''through'' and '''a''', ''to, at'' cause spirant mutation rather than softening. | ||
* Prepositions are pronounced in spoken Brithenig as though they were softened, although the written language does not reflect this: | * Prepositions are pronounced in spoken Brithenig as though they were softened, although the written language does not reflect this: | ||
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3. The demonstrative pronoun 'that' is '''o''' masculine nouns and '''a''' for feminine nouns. The demonstrative pronoun '''yst''', 'this', is the same for nouns of both genders. The plural forms are '''ogyn''' and '''agyn''' for 'those' and '''ystyn''' for 'these' | 3. The demonstrative pronoun 'that' is '''o''' masculine nouns and '''a''' for feminine nouns. The demonstrative pronoun '''yst''', 'this', is the same for nouns of both genders. The plural forms are '''ogyn''' and '''agyn''' for 'those' and '''ystyn''' for 'these' | ||
'''O''' and '''a''' are not used as articles before nouns in modern Brithenig. For that the adverbs '''ci''', 'here', and '''llâ''', 'there', are added to the | '''O''' and '''a''' are not used as articles before nouns in modern Brithenig. For that the adverbs '''ci''', 'here', and '''llâ''', 'there', are added to the definite noun phrase. For example, 'this man' and 'that man' become '''ill of ci''' and '''ill hof llâ'''. | ||
4. Feminine nouns are referred to as '''sa''', 'she', masculine nouns as '''ys''', 'he'. | 4. Feminine nouns are referred to as '''sa''', 'she', masculine nouns as '''ys''', 'he'. | ||
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Brithenig has two ways of saying you: '''ty''', '''thou' | Brithenig has two ways of saying you: '''ty''', '''thou''', and '''gw''', '''you'''. '''Ty''' is singular and used for addressing people that the speaker is familiar with, such as an immediate family member, a close friend, a child, an animal, or god. '''Gw''' is used as a singular when speaking to a stranger or a less familiar or more formal acquaintance. It is also used to address more than one person no matter the familiarity. Pronouns are subject to consonant mutation in the same way other words are. If '''ty''' or '''ti''' is mutated it is always written as '''dy''' to avoid confusion with the preposition '''di''', which has a different pronunciation. '''Fi''', the mutated form of '''mi''', becomes ''''i''' in the spoken language, especially after consonants. | ||
'''Sa''' is used to mean 'they' when 'they' is exclusively feminine. For 'it' use the form appropriate to the gender of the noun. The impersonal pronoun 'it' is always '''sa''': '''Sa es fel eidd''', ''It is nice today''. | '''Sa''' is used to mean 'they' when 'they' is exclusively feminine. For 'it' use the form appropriate to the gender of the noun. The impersonal pronoun 'it' is always '''sa''': '''Sa es fel eidd''', ''It is nice today''. | ||
There is a third person reflexive pronoun '''si''', '''himself, themselves (etc.)' | There is a third person reflexive pronoun '''si''', '''himself, themselves (etc.)'''; it is used as the object case with the indefinite subject, '''yno''', '''one', 'people', 'they''', derived from '''yn of''', ''a man''. | ||
The direct object form of the pronoun have the option of coming before or after a simple verb, but with a compound tense or an infinitive used in the sentence, it can only come after the past participle or the infinitive, to which it may be hyphenated. | The direct object form of the pronoun have the option of coming before or after a simple verb, but with a compound tense or an infinitive used in the sentence, it can only come after the past participle or the infinitive, to which it may be hyphenated. | ||
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'''llo, lla''' do not mutate, but other pronouns do. The indirect object is often written with a | '''llo, lla''' do not mutate, but other pronouns do. The indirect object is often written with a preposition such as '''a''', ''to'' where the mutated forms are used: '''Ys dun yn llifr a fui''', ''He gives me (to me) a book''. | ||
This is the usual order in Brithenig. | This is the usual order in Brithenig. | ||
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For a comparative of an adjective, Brithenig puts the words '''ply''', ''more'' and '''min''', ''less'' before an adjective, with the spirant mutation of the initial consonant of the following adjective. 'Than' is translated as '''ca''': '''ply hallt ca yn gas''', '''taller than a house'''. | For a comparative of an adjective, Brithenig puts the words '''ply''', ''more'' and '''min''', ''less'' before an adjective, with the spirant mutation of the initial consonant of the following adjective. 'Than' is translated as '''ca''': '''ply hallt ca yn gas''', '''taller than a house'''. | ||
The superlative is formed by putting the | The superlative is formed by putting the definite article suitable for the gender of the noun before the comparative adjective: '''ill ply hallt''', '''the tallest''. When a noun is qualified, the definite article goes in front of the noun, replacing '''yn''': '''lla gas bly hallt''', ''the tallest house''. It is omitted if the noun is proceeded by a possessive pronoun: | ||
:'''ill llifr ci es sew ober feilwr di llo''', ''this book is his best work'' | :'''ill llifr ci es sew ober feilwr di llo''', ''this book is his best work'' | ||
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The superlative form of these adjectives is the comparative form with the | The superlative form of these adjectives is the comparative form with the definite article, as per usual. | ||
Most adverbs are derived from adjectives by adding the ending '''-fent'''. In spoken Brithenig this is usually pronounced 'fen' but the t is still written: | Most adverbs are derived from adjectives by adding the ending '''-fent'''. In spoken Brithenig this is usually pronounced 'fen' but the t is still written: | ||
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|ys/sa ddorfirent | |ys/sa ddorfirent | ||
|} | |} | ||
The past | The past definite is used particularly to describe an historical event; or in connection with a temporal adverb or adverbial phrase; or a `when' phrase; or a conclusive and final action. | ||
There are a small number of verbs where the past | There are a small number of verbs where the past definite is irregular, one such verb is '''diger''', ''to say'': | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|eo ddis | |eo ddis | ||
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'''Se ys gwen eo barolarai a lle''' ''If he comes I will speak to him''. | '''Se ys gwen eo barolarai a lle''' ''If he comes I will speak to him''. | ||
The conditional is also used in describing non-specific | The conditional is also used in describing non-specific repetitive action in the past: | ||
'''I llo ddiwrn llâ nu h-amblarewn sempr a'll castr''', ''In those days we would always walk into town'', or, ''In those days we always used to walk into town''. | '''I llo ddiwrn llâ nu h-amblarewn sempr a'll castr''', ''In those days we would always walk into town'', or, ''In those days we always used to walk into town''. | ||
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|ys/sa ddorfissent | |ys/sa ddorfissent | ||
|} | |} | ||
Compound tenses are made with two new verbs, '''esser''', ''`to be' | Compound tenses are made with two new verbs, '''esser''', ''`to be''' and '''afer''', ''`to have'''. They are irregular and do not conform to the three conjugations that have been given so far. Present tense: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|eo su | |eo su | ||
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When an object follows a negative verb then the preposition '''di''' is inserted between the verb and the following noun. Literally this would be translated as 'none of': | When an object follows a negative verb then the preposition '''di''' is inserted between the verb and the following noun. Literally this would be translated as 'none of': | ||
'''Sa es rhen di yn char''', '' | '''Sa es rhen di yn char''', '''There aren't any cars''' | ||
=== Numbers === | === Numbers === | ||
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Note the change in sentence order causes softening to occur on following words. Also the '''-th''' ending on the verb has been elided. | Note the change in sentence order causes softening to occur on following words. Also the '''-th''' ending on the verb has been elided. | ||
When the subject is a noun it remains before the verb but the | When the subject is a noun it remains before the verb but the equivalent pronoun is placed after the verb: | ||
'''Ill car es llâ''', ''`the car is there''' | '''Ill car es llâ''', ''`the car is there''' | ||
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=== Commands === | === Commands === | ||
The most common form of making a command is to add '''-th''' to the verb; '''Gwenith per yn turn''', ''`Come for a walk' | The most common form of making a command is to add '''-th''' to the verb; '''Gwenith per yn turn''', ''`Come for a walk'''. The familiar form of the command drops the ending along with the final vowel; '''Llaes mi sulfent''', ''`Leave me alone'''. | ||
Some imperative forms are irregular, being derived from a subjunctive tense which is no longer used in the spoken language: | Some imperative forms are irregular, being derived from a subjunctive tense which is no longer used in the spoken language: | ||