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Chiresh (view source)

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In Chiresh the situations, which involve the use of first- or second-person markers on verbs, require using markers from two (or three in case of some verbs) sets of markers, for a subject and for an object. But when both the subject and the object are the third person singular, both will require zero markers. As a consequence, the inverse system on a verb will be used to clarify the interaction between these third persons along with obviation on nouns. The following example shows the difference between direct and inverse constructions:
In Chiresh the situations, which involve the use of first- or second-person markers on verbs, require using markers from two (or three in case of some verbs) sets of markers, for a subject and for an object. But when both the subject and the object are the third person singular, both will require zero markers. As a consequence, the inverse system on a verb will be used to clarify the interaction between these third persons along with obviation on nouns. The following example shows the difference between direct and inverse constructions:
:{|
:{|
|xüttĕ
|xuttĕ
|ilăxăn
|ilăxăn
|nonnă.
|nonnă.
|-
|-
|xütt-ĕ
|xutt-ĕ
|ilăx-ăn
|ilăx-ăn
|∅-∅-nonn-ă
|∅-∅-nonn-ă
Line 125: Line 125:
|}
|}
:{|
:{|
|xüttĕn
|xuttĕn
|ilăxă
|ilăxă
|nonu.
|nonu.
|-
|-
|xütt-ĕn
|xutt-ĕn
|ilăx-ă
|ilăx-ă
|∅-non-u
|∅-non-u
Line 141: Line 141:
|}
|}
In Chiresh [[w:Dependent clause|dependent]] clauses are marked with an ''"i-"'' prefix on a verb and an obligatory VS(O) word order, as are questions and relative clauses. The nominalization of a verb usually does not require the ''i-'' prefix, but insead it is characterised by an initial vowel change, for example, ''pură'' "he/she drinks" turns into ''(-i)pör'' "drinking", when nominalized, where ''"-i"'' only appears when prefixes are attached.
In Chiresh [[w:Dependent clause|dependent]] clauses are marked with an ''"i-"'' prefix on a verb and an obligatory VS(O) word order, as are questions and relative clauses. The nominalization of a verb usually does not require the ''i-'' prefix, but insead it is characterised by an initial vowel change, for example, ''pură'' "he/she drinks" turns into ''(-i)pör'' "drinking", when nominalized, where ''"-i"'' only appears when prefixes are attached.
===Nouns===
Chiresh nouns have a category of animacy (a two gendered system of animate and inaimate nouns, common for almost all Settameric languages); number, a simple singular/plural contrast for almost all nouns, but words for naturally paired objects have dual, along with plural. Verbs must agree with the animacy and number of its nouns. Unlike all other Plains languages, Chiresh  nouns have a case distinction. One word can have many suffixes, which can also be used to create new words and also indicate the grammatical function of the word. In some situations, like when a sentence contains an intransitive verb, obviative marking is omitted. This is also true of sentences with only one noun where the role of the noun is obvious from the personal marking on the verb. There are six noun cases:
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="2" |Inanimate
! rowspan="9" |
! colspan="2" |Animate
|-
| colspan="2" | "leaf"
| colspan="2" | "woman"
|-
! Singular
! Plural
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Proximate
| pĕlix
| pĕlix'''a'''
| ilăx'''ă'''
| ilăx'''un'''
|-
! Obviate
| pĕlix'''ĕn'''
| pĕliś'''i'''
| ilăx'''ăn'''
| ilăš'''nu'''
|-
! Possessed
| pĕlix'''ĕmă'''
| pĕlix'''amă'''
| ilăx'''ămă'''
| ilăx'''umă'''
|-
! Locative
| pĕlix'''xa'''
| pĕlix'''xo'''
| ilăx'''ox'''
| ilăx'''owă'''
|-
! Ablative
| pĕliś'''śi'''
| pĕlix'''assi'''
| ilăx'''ăssi'''
| ilăx'''ussi'''
|-
! Dative
| pĕlix'''år'''
| pĕlix'''ar'''
| ilăx'''år'''
| ilăx'''or'''
|-
|}
There are also several additional suffixes that act like clitics: [[w:Terminative case|terminative]] ''-(ĕ)čin'', [[w:Distributive case|distributive]], ''-isen'', desubstantival (denoting the characteristic of a substance, material, object or a group) ''-reš''. When an object is possessed by the first or second person, it is marked by a special possessive marker, otherwise it uses the possessed case. All possessive prefixes are represented in the table below:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=4 |Possessive prefixes
|-
|
! singular
! dual
! plural
|-
! 1<sup>st</sup>
| ''ča(w)-''
| ''čis-''
| ''čăl-''
|-
! 2<sup>nd</sup>
| ''ta(w)-''
| ''tis-''
| ''tăl-''
|-
|}
===Verbs===
Chiresh verbs have a very similar shape to other Plains languages. All verbs belong to one of three categories: transitive, intransitive and mediopassive. Like in Kalyah and Kootayi, there are independent (in a main clause) and conjunct (used in subordinate clauses, to form participles and with particles, called preverbs) forms, but the conjunct form looks exactly like the mediopassive form with the only difference being an initial conjunct prefix. Here is a template for all types of verbs:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=14 | Transitive verbs
|-
! colspan=4 | prefixes || colspan=5 | word stem || colspan=5 | suffixes
|-
| particles || Ind. Obj. || 1,2 Subj. sg. || Dir. Obj. sg. || Aspect || Modality || Root || DIR/INV || Mood || 3sg. Subj. || Obj. du./pl. || Subj. du./pl. || negative || interrogative
|-
! colspan=9 | Intransitive verbs
|-
! colspan=2 | prefixes || colspan=4 | word stem || colspan=3 | suffixes
|-
| particles || Subj. sg. || Aspect || Modality || Root || Mood || Subj. du./pl. || negativity || interrogative
|-
! colspan=12 | Mediopassive verbs
|-
! colspan=3 | prefixes || colspan=5 | word stem || colspan=4 | suffixes
|-
| initial<br>si-/ni- || Ind. Obj. || 1,2 Subj. sg. || Aspect || Modality || Root || Mood || DIR/INV || 3 Subj. sg. || Subj. du./pl. || negative || interrogative
|-
|}
There are four moods in Chiresh: indicative, optative, conditional, and subjunctive. Different verbs determine (or govern) the case of the subsequent nouns, pronouns and adjectives of a sentence, for most transitive verbs their arguments are in proximate and obviative. In infinitive forms, most Chiresh verbs end in ''-a''. Some exceptions include a few verbs ending in ''-o'' and the verb "to be" has no infinitive at all. There are three types of infinitives: simple (only vowel ''"-a"'' or ''"-o"''), continouos (''"-(a)wa"'', ''"-owa"'') and nominal (with the ''i-'' prefix). The contionuos infinitive is used to indicate action as a process, to denote that two actions were going on simultaneously, for example in ''ăškumă rarwa'' "she/he was thinking while '''sitting'''" the word ''rarwa'' is used in the second infinitive. The third infinitive is very similar to a verbal noun and is used in the same way as [[w:Gerund|gerund]] in English: ''čăpat itöra śinxa'' "I like '''walking''' here"
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan=2|
! colspan=2 |Indirect Object
! colspan=2 |Subject
! colspan=2 |Direct Object
|-
| singular
| plural
| singular
| plural
| singular
| plural
|-
! 1<sup>st</sup>
| ''r(ă)-''
| ''rĕl-''
| ''čă-''
| ''čă-_-et''
| ''m-''
| ''m-_-ĕš''
|-
! 2<sup>nd</sup>
| ''t(ă)-''
| ''tĕl-''
| ''če-''
| ''če-_-et''
| ''n-''
| ''n-_-ĕš''
|-
! 3<sup>rd</sup> an.
| ''hu-''
| ''hul-''
| ''-ă'' (prox.)<br>''-u'' (obv.)
| ''-et'' (prox.)<br>''-il'' (obv.)
| ''–''
| ''-ox''
|-
! 3<sup>rd</sup> inan.
| –
| –
| ''–''
| ''-(ĕ)n''
| ''e-''
| ''-a(š)''
|-
|}
In most cases in Chiresh, the conjugation patterns remain regular across most verbs. Some verbs can change their root vowel and turn "-ă" in 3sg animate into "-å", which can not be determined from the verb itself in the modern language and speakers must memorize which verbs have these changes in their conjugation. Most cases of such changes have been completely regularized, however.


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Settameric languages]]
[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Settameric languages]]
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