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''→ This page treats the uses of verbal forms. See [[Chlouvānem/Morphology|Chlouvānem morphology]] for the actual verbal morphology.''
''→ This page treats the uses of verbal forms. See [[Chlouvānem/Verbs|Chlouvānem verbs]] for the actual verbal morphology.''


Positional and motion verbs are a semantically and syntactically defined category of [[Chlouvānem]] verbs that constitutes one of the most complex parts overall of Chlouvānem grammar, as a (relatively) small number of roots is used for most meanings related to state and movement in space and time, meanings which are specified with the use of many different prefixes, most of which are analogues to English prepositions. Other Lahob languages (including also Chlouvānem's own daughter languages) possess similar systems, even if time has modified and, often, simplified the original system; the Chlouvānem system is essentially the same as the one reconstructed for Proto-Lahob.
Positional and motion verbs are a semantically and syntactically defined category of [[Chlouvānem]] verbs that constitutes one of the most complex parts overall of Chlouvānem grammar, as a (relatively) small number of roots is used for most meanings related to state and movement in space and time, meanings which are specified with the use of many different prefixes, most of which are analogues to English prepositions. Other Lahob languages (including also Chlouvānem's own daughter languages) possess similar systems, even if time has modified and, often, simplified the original system; the Chlouvānem system is essentially the same as the one reconstructed for Proto-Lahob.


Positional verbs (''jalyadaradhūs'', pl. ''jalyadaradhaus'') translate verbs such as "to stay", "to be seated", and "to lie", (as well as their middle and causative forms) with prefixes that are semantically comparable to English prepositions. Motion verbs (''duldaradhūs'', pl. ''duldaradhaus'') are more similar to English, being satellite-framed (the satellite, in the Chlouvānem case, being the prefix), but there is an added complexity because motion verbs can be ''monodirectional'' (''tūtugirdaradhūs'', ''-aus'') or ''multidirectional'' (''tailьgirdaradhūs'', ''-aus''), and most verbs come in pairs, each member of a pair being used in different contexts.
Positional verbs (''jalyadaradhūs'', pl. ''jalyadaradhaus'') translate verbs such as "to stay", "to be seated", and "to lie", (as well as their middle and causative forms) with prefixes that are semantically comparable to English prepositions. Motion verbs (''duldaradhūs'', pl. ''duldaradhaus'') are more similar to English, being satellite-framed (the satellite, in the Chlouvānem case, being the prefix), but there is an added complexity because motion verbs can be ''monodirectional'' (''emibugirdaradhūs'', ''-aus'') or ''multidirectional'' (''tailgirdaradhūs'', ''-aus''), and most verbs come in pairs, each member of a pair being used in different contexts.
{{Chlouvānem sidebar}}


==Positional verbs (''jalyadaradhaus'')==
==Positional verbs (''jalyadaradhaus'')==
Positional verbs are semantically static verbs (dynamic in their causative and interior forms) that are formed by a base root that never appears alone otherwise and a prefix; the root denotes three basic states of position (to be upright, to be seated, to lie), while 24 different prefixes convey the meaning of placement (on, over, under, near, far...).
Positional verbs are semantically static verbs (dynamic in their causative and interior forms) that are formed by a base root that never appears alone otherwise and a prefix; the root denotes three basic states of position (to be upright, to be seated, to lie), while 24 different prefixes convey the meaning of placement (on, over, under, near, far...). A subset of 10 prefixes (plus a ∅- prefix corresponding to many of the other ones) is also used to build demonstratives.


The complete list of Chlouvānem positional verbs follows:
The complete list of Chlouvānem positional verbs follows:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Prefix !! To stay (tiā-/tim-) !! To be seated (mirt-) !! To lie (ut-)
! Prefix !! To stay (tyā-/tim-) !! To be seated (mirt-) !! To lie (ut-)
|-
|-
| Generic position ('''ta-''') || tatiāke || tamirte || tokte
| Generic position ('''ta-''') || tatyāke || tamirte || tokte
|-
|-
| On, over, above ('''ān-''') || āntiāke || āmmirte || ānukte
| On, over, above ('''ān-''') || āntyāke || āmmirte || ānukte
|-
|-
| Under, below ('''šu-''') || šutiāke || šumirte || šūkte
| Under, below ('''šu-''') || šutyāke || šumirte || šūkte
|-
|-
| In the middle of, between ('''khl-''') || khlatiāke || khlumirte || khlukte
| In the middle of, between ('''ṭvā-''') || ṭvātyāke || ṭvāmirte || ṭvaukte
|-
|-
| Together with, among ('''gin-''') || gintiāke || gimmirte || ginukte
| Together with, among ('''gin-''') || gintyāke || gimmirte || ginukte
|-
|-
| Within inside ('''nī-''') || nītiāke || nīmirte || nyukte
| Within inside ('''nī-''') || nītyāke || nīmirte || nyukte
|-
|-
| Near ('''ū(b)-''') || ūtiāke || ūmirte || ūbukte
| Near ('''ū(b)-''') || ūtyāke || ūmirte || ūbukte
|-
|-
| Far ('''bis-''') || bistiāke || bismirte || bisukte
| Far ('''bis-''') || bistyāke || bismirte || bisukte
|-
|-
| Physically attached; mounting an animal/a bike ('''tad-''') || tandiāke || tadmirte || tadukte
| Physically attached; mounting an animal/a bike ('''tad-''') || tandiāke || tadmirte || tadukte
|-
|-
| Hanging from; upside down ('''įs-''') || įstiāke || įsmirte || įsukte
| Hanging from; upside down ('''įs-''') || įstyāke || įsmirte || įsukte
|-
|-
| In(to), inside ('''na(ñ)-''') || natiāke || namirte || nañukte
| In(to), inside ('''na(ñ)-''') || natyāke || namirte || nañukte
|-
|-
| Outside, outwards ('''kau-''') || kautiāke || kaumirte || kavukte
| Outside, outwards ('''kau-''') || kautyāke || kaumirte || kavukte
|-
|-
| Opposite to; somewhere else ('''viṣ-''') || viṣṭyāke || viṣmirte || viṣukte
| Opposite to; somewhere else ('''viṣ-''') || viṣṭyāke || viṣmirte || viṣukte
|-
|-
| Around ('''kami-''') || kamitiāke || kamimirte || kamyukte
| Around ('''kami-''') || kamityāke || kamimirte || kamyukte
|-
|-
| Behind ('''prь-''') || pritiāke || primirte || priukte
| Behind ('''pri-''') || prityāke || primirte || pryukte
|-
|-
| In front of ('''mai-''') || maitiāke || maimirte || mayukte
| In front of ('''mai-''') || maityāke || maimirte || mayukte
|-
|-
| In a corner; on a border; at the limits of ('''vai-''') || vaitiāke || vaimirte || vayukte
| In a corner; on a border; at the limits of ('''vai-''') || vaityāke || vaimirte || vayukte
|-
|-
| Next to; alongside ('''sāṭ-''') || sāṭṭyāke || sāṭmirte || sāṭukte
| Next to; alongside ('''sāṭ-''') || sāṭṭyāke || sāṭmirte || sāṭukte
|-
|-
| In the center of ('''lā(d)-''') || lātiāke || lāmirte || lādukte
| In the center of ('''lā(d)-''') || lātyāke || lāmirte || lādukte
|-
|-
| On the left ('''vyā-''') || vyātiāke || vyāmirte || vyaukte
| On the left ('''vyā-''') || vyātyāke || vyāmirte || vyaukte
|-
|-
| On the right ('''māha-''') || māhatiāke || māhamirte || māhokte
| On the right ('''māha-''') || māhatyāke || māhamirte || māhokte
|-
|-
| Facing; towards ('''pid-''') || pindiāke || pidmirte || pidukte
| Facing; towards ('''pid-''') || pindyāke || pidmirte || pidukte
|-
|-
| Facing inside; near the center; <small>''mot.:'' convergent</small> ('''nalь-''') || nalьtiāke || nalьmirte || naliukte
| Facing inside; near the center; <small>''mot.:'' convergent</small> ('''nal-''') || naltyāke || nalmirte || nalukte
|-
|-
| Facing outside; far from the center; <small>''mot.:'' divergent</small> ('''vād-''') || vāndiāke || vādmirte || vādukte
| Facing outside; far from the center; <small>''mot.:'' divergent</small> ('''vād-''') || vāndiāke || vādmirte || vādukte
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* ''āmmirte'' "to be seated on": ''āmmertē, āmmirtek, ānimirta''
* ''āmmirte'' "to be seated on": ''āmmertē, āmmirtek, ānimirta''
* ''ānukte'' "to lie on": ''ānotē, ānutek, ānuɂuta''
* ''ānukte'' "to lie on": ''ānotē, ānutek, ānuɂuta''
''-tiā-'' is a vocalic root with the -ьā-～-im- alternation in the present indicative and in the subjunctive:
''-tyā-'' is a vocalic root with the -yā-～-im- alternation in the present indicative and in the subjunctive:
* ''āntiāke'' "to stand on": ''āntimē, āntiāk, ānatiā''; <small>SUBJ.IMPF.</small> ''āntimīti'', <small>SUBJ.PF.</small> ''āntimevite''
* ''āntyāke'' "to stand on": ''āntimē, āntyāk, ānatyā''; <small>SUBJ.IMPF.</small> ''āntimī'', <small>SUBJ.PF.</small> ''āntimēt''


===Meanings of forms===
===Meanings of forms===
The basic (exterior non-causative) forms of these verbs all have a static meaning and are always intransitive:
The basic (exterior non-causative) forms of these verbs all have a static meaning and are always intransitive:
: ''tatimu'' – I am standing.
: ''tatimu'' – I am standing.
: ''kamilire lædьle āmmertē'' – (s)he is sitting on the blue chair.
: ''kamilire širēmye āmmertē'' – (s)he is sitting on the blue chair.
: ''phēcam eṇāt švotē'' – the cat is lying under the table.
: ''phēcam eṇāt švotē'' – the cat is lying under the table.


The interior forms have a dynamic, middle-voice meaning:
The interior forms have a dynamic, middle-voice meaning:
: ''tatiairu'' – I stand up.
: ''tatyairu'' – I stand up.
: ''kamilire lædьlom āmmertire'' – (s)he is sitting down on the blue chair.
: ''kamilire širēmyom āmmertire'' – (s)he is sitting down on the blue chair.
: ''phēcam eṇom švotire'' – the cat is lying down under the table.
: ''phēcam eṇom švotire'' – the cat is lying down under the table.


The causative exterior forms have a dynamic, causative meaning, while the causative interior ones are morphologically possible but practically never used:
The causative exterior forms have a dynamic, causative meaning, while the causative interior ones are morphologically possible but practically never used:
: ''kåmbu tatetiaildu'' – I put the bag down [in a standing position].
: ''kåmbu tatetyaisu'' – I put the bag down [in a standing position].
: ''samin tatemairtildede'' – they two seat the baby down.
: ''nūrya tatemirtīde'' – they two seat the baby down.
: ''kåmbu tatayautildu'' – I put the bag down [in a horizontal position].
: ''kåmbu tatayutisu'' – I put the bag down [in a horizontal position].


The English verb "to remain" is translated by ''lįnake'' (class 2 thematic). For the ''-tiā-'' verbs, it is used alone (with the appropriate prefix), while for the other two columns it is used as an auxiliary together with the infinitive of the positional verb:
The English verb "to remain" is translated by ''lįnake'' (class 2 thematic). For the ''-tyā-'' verbs, it is used alone (with the appropriate prefix), while for the other two columns it is used as an auxiliary together with the infinitive of the positional verb:
: ''lęnu'' – I remain [standing].
: ''lęnu'' – I remain [standing].
: ''kamilire lædьle āmmirtelęnē'' – (s)he remains sitting on the blue chair.
: ''kamilire širēmye āmmirtelęnē'' – (s)he remains sitting on the blue chair.
: ''phēcam eṇāt švuktelęnē'' – the cat remains lying under the table.
: ''phēcam eṇāt švuktelęnē'' – the cat remains lying under the table.


Line 98: Line 99:
: ''eṇē ānotē'' – it lies on the table.
: ''eṇē ānotē'' – it lies on the table.
: ''eṇāt ānotē'' – it lies over the table.
: ''eṇāt ānotē'' – it lies over the table.
Distances from one point to another are expressed using the essive case:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jāryakūraṇa līlasuṃghāṇat vælknihælęs vaiṣryęs bistimē.
| gloss = Jāryakūrana.<small>DIR</small>. Līlasuṃghāṇa-<small>EXESS</small>. 60<sub>12</sub>-<small>ESS</small>. vaiṣrya-<small>ESS.SG</small>. stand_far_from.<small>IND.PRES-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| translation = Jāryakūraṇa is 72 vaiṣryai (~80 km) away from Līlasuṃghāṇa.
}}
=====Essive arguments=====
Essive case arguments may be used to state what kind of thing the trigger is. Practically, this is an alternate way of expressing otherwise copular sentences such as "X is a(n) Y in Z". Compare the following examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = lāltaṣveya aṣasārjaiṭe marta vi.
| gloss = Lāltaṣveya.<small>DIR</small>. Aṣasārjaiṭa-<small>LOC</small>. city.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| translation = Lāltaṣveya is a city in Aṣasārjaiṭa.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lāltaṣveya aṣasārjaiṭe tatimē marta vi.
| gloss = Lāltaṣveya.<small>DIR</small>. Aṣasārjaiṭa-<small>LOC</small>. be_located.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. city.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| translation = Lāltaṣveya is a city, located in Aṣasārjaiṭa.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lāltaṣveya martęs aṣasārjaiṭe tatimē.
| gloss = Lāltaṣveya.<small>DIR</small>. city-<small>ESS.SG</small>. Aṣasārjaiṭa-<small>LOC</small>. be_located.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| translation = Lāltaṣveya is a city located in Aṣasārjaiṭa.
}}
Such constructions are more useful when verbal prefixes are needed, as the bare copular sentence (as in the first one) is not possible. The second following example is, in fact, the most common employed strategy:
{{Gloss
| phrase = nunaihauba līlasuṃghāṇat emibe ga dore ūtimē marta vi.
| gloss = Nunaihauba.<small>DIR</small>. Līlasuṃghāṇa-<small>EXESS</small>. one.<small>DIR</small>. <small>ADP</small>. road-<small>LOC.SG</small>. stand_near_to.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. city.<small>DIR.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.EXP.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| translation = Nunaihauba is a city close to Līlasuṃghāṇa on Road 1<ref>Road 1 here implies Nanašīrami Road 1, an important diocesan-level road in Nanašīrama.</ref>.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nunaihauba martęs līlasuṃghāṇat emibe ga dore ūtimē.
| gloss = Nunaihauba.<small>DIR</small>. city-<small>ESS.SG</small>. Līlasuṃghāṇa-<small>EXESS</small>. one.<small>DIR</small>. <small>ADP</small>. road-<small>LOC.SG</small>. stand_near_to.<small>IND.PRES-EXP-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>.
| translation = Nunaihauba is a city close to Līlasuṃghāṇa on Road 1.
}}


=====Positional prefixes as derivational affixes=====
=====Positional prefixes as derivational affixes=====
Line 105: Line 142:
* '''šu-''' (down, below) (and also ''kau'' (outside), especially for states) may be used with a terminative meaning.
* '''šu-''' (down, below) (and also ''kau'' (outside), especially for states) may be used with a terminative meaning.


The root ''męlь-'' (to give) is a good example for this: from the basic verb ''męlike'' we can find derivations such as ''primęlike'' (to give back <small>(exterior)</small>, to return <small>(interior)</small>), ''maimęlike'' (to prepare), ''āmmęlike'' (to dedicate oneself (mentally) to), ''namęlike'' (to dedicate oneself (physically) to), or ''šumęlike'' (to renounce). An inceptive/terminative pair is ''pugle'' (to sleep) → ''nampugle'' (to fall asleep) and ''kaupugle'' (to wake up).
The root ''męly-'' (to give) is a good example for this: from the basic verb ''męlike'' we can find derivations such as ''primęlike'' (to give back <small>(exterior)</small>, to return <small>(interior)</small>), ''maimęlike'' (to prepare), ''āmmęlike'' (to dedicate oneself (mentally) to), ''namęlike'' (to dedicate oneself (physically) to), or ''šumęlike'' (to renounce). An inceptive/terminative pair is ''pugle'' (to sleep) → ''nampugle'' (to fall asleep) and ''kaupugle'' (to wake up).


=====Positions without positional verbs=====
=====Positions without positional verbs=====
Line 111: Line 148:


The morphologically easiest is to simply attach the positional prefix in front of the verb and express that position with the locative, so for example we have:
The morphologically easiest is to simply attach the positional prefix in front of the verb and express that position with the locative, so for example we have:
: ''lilǣ dvārme nateyašu'' "I read in my room".
{{Gloss
: ''lilǣ dvārme natekilįm'' "we talk in my room".
| phrase = lilǣ dvārme nateyašu.
 
| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN-LOC</small>. room-<small>LOC.SG</small>. read.in.<small>IND.PRES-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
However, while always correct, there may be some ambiguities because of the use of positional prefixes as derivational ones: the latter example shows one of these ambiguities, as ''nakulke'' means both "to talk (in somewhere)" and "to begin to talk/speak". Another strategy, very common in speech, is to use the appropriate positional verb followed by the action verb. This has the advantage of showing the type of position:
| translation = I read in my room.
: ''lilǣ dvārme nañotu yašute'' "I read while laying in my room" (note that "to lay in one's room" idiomatically means "to lay on the bed").
}}
: ''lilǣ dvārme namerįm kilįṃte'' "we talk while sitting in my room".
{{Gloss
 
| phrase = lilǣ dvārme natekilmim.
The third strategy, correct but more proper in formal writings than in speech is to put the position as the derived noun (in ''-timas'' / ''-mirtas'' / ''-utis'') in the locative and the location in the genitive:
| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN-LOC</small>. room-<small>LOC.SG</small>. talk.in.<small>IND.PRES-1PL.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
: ''liliai dvārmi nañutie yašute'' "I read while laying in my room" (lit. "in a sitting position in the inside of my room").
| translation = We talk in my room.
: ''liliai dvārmi namirte kilįṃte'' "we talk while sitting in my room".
}}
 
Such structures are very common, and still distinguish relative and absolute positions:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jāyīk grembātatālunaih keike kitat priteħildāhai.
| gloss = girl-<small>DIR.PL</small>. hide_and_seek-<small>ACC.PL</small>. garden-<small>LOC.SG</small>. house-<small>EXESS.SG</small>. play.behind.<small>IND.PRES-3PL.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = The girls are playing hide-and-seek in the garden behind the house.
}}
However, while always correct, there may be some ambiguities because of the use of positional prefixes as derivational ones: the second example of the first set shows one of these ambiguities, as ''nakulke'' means both "to talk (in somewhere)" and "to begin to talk/speak". Another strategy, very common in speech, is to use the appropriate positional verb followed by the action verb. This has the advantage of showing the type of position:
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilǣ dvārme nañotu yašute.
| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN-LOC</small>. room-<small>LOC.SG</small>. lie.in.<small>IND.PRES-1SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. read.<small>IND.PRES-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = I read while laying in my room (= on my bed).
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilǣ dvārme namermim kilmiṃte.
| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN-LOC</small>. room-<small>LOC.SG</small>. sit.in.<small>IND.PRES-1PL.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. talk.<small>IND.PRES-1PL.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = We talk while sitting in my room.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = jāyīk kitat pritimāhai keike grembātatālunaih ħildāhaite.
| gloss = girl-<small>DIR.PL</small>. house-<small>EXESS.SG</small>. stand.in.<small>IND.PRES-3PL.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. garden-<small>LOC.SG</small>. hide_and_seek-<small>ACC.PL</small>. play.<small>IND.PRES-3PL.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = The girls are behind the house; they play hide-and-seek in the garden.
}}
A third strategy, correct but more proper in formal writings than in speech is to put the position as the derived noun (in ''-timas'' / ''-mirtas'' / ''-utis'') in the locative and the location in the genitive:
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilyai dvārmi nañutye yašute.
| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN-GEN</small>. room-<small>GEN.SG</small>. lying_position_inside-<small>LOC.SG</small>. read.<small>IND.PRES-1SG.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = I read while laying in my room. (lit.: "in a lying position in the inside of my room")
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilyai dvārmi namirte kilmiṃte.
| gloss = <small>1SG.GEN-GEN</small>. room-<small>GEN.SG</small>. sitting_position_inside-<small>LOC.SG</small>. talk.<small>IND.PRES-1PL.EXTERIOR-AGENT</small>.
| translation = We talk while sitting in my room.
}}
Note that some locations are often expressed with the last one anyway, especially if they're idiomatic — a notable example being ''yųljavyī ūtime/ūmirte'' "standing/sitting in the kitchen", as ''yųljavyāh'' originally meant "fire for [cooking] food" and while it later was extended to "kitchen" the location is still expressed as such ("in the kitchen" = "near the fire").
Note that some locations are often expressed with the last one anyway, especially if they're idiomatic — a notable example being ''yųljavyī ūtime/ūmirte'' "standing/sitting in the kitchen", as ''yųljavyāh'' originally meant "fire for [cooking] food" and while it later was extended to "kitchen" the location is still expressed as such ("in the kitchen" = "near the fire").


==Motion verbs (''duldaradhaus'')==
==Motion verbs (''duldaradhaus'')==
Motion verbs, in Chlouvānem, are furthermore divided into two categories: monodirectional (''emibugirdaradhūs, -aus'') and multidirectional (''tailьgirdaradhūs, -aus'') motion verbs.<br/>There is a total of 18 meanings for which motion verbs are used: 16 are pairs while two only have a monodirectional verb. Historically, multidirectional verbs were iteratives (as shown by their formation with the Proto-Lahob *-re- infix), but today they have a larger set of uses.
Motion verbs, in Chlouvānem, are furthermore divided into two categories: monodirectional (''emibugirdaradhūs, -aus'') and multidirectional (''tailgirdaradhūs, -aus'') motion verbs.<br/>There is a total of 20 meanings for which motion verbs are used: 18 are pairs while two only have a monodirectional verb. Historically, multidirectional verbs were iteratives (as shown by their formation with the Proto-Lahob *-re- infix), but today they have a larger set of uses.


All of these verbs can furthermore be [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Positional_and_motional_prefixes|prefixed with one or more prefixes from the lative and ablative sets.]]
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Meaning !! Monodirectional verb (root) !! Multidirectional verb (root)
! Meaning !! Monodirectional verb (root) !! Multidirectional verb (root)
|-
|-
| to go, to walk || ''lulke'' (lun-) || ''peithake''
| to go, to walk || ''lulke'' (lun-) || ''mbiṇḍhe''
|-
|-
| to go with a vehicle<small> (trans.)<br/>(except small boats, bikes, and airplanes)</small> || ''vaske'' || ''pūrṣake''
| to go with a vehicle<small> (trans.)<br/>(except small boats, bikes, and airplanes)</small> || ''vaske'' || ''pūrṣake''
Line 145: Line 215:
| to fly || ''mugdhe'' (mudh-) || ''mordhake''
| to fly || ''mugdhe'' (mudh-) || ''mordhake''
|-
|-
| to float in the air<br/>to go with a balloon or zeppelin || ''yåjyake'' || ''yējrake''
| to float in the air<br/>to go with a balloon or zeppelin || ''yåjyake'' || ''ējrake''
|-
|-
| to float on water<br/>to go with a small boat, to row || ''uṭake'' || ''arṭake''
| to float on water<br/>to go with a small boat, to row || ''uṭake'' || ''arṭake''
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| to fall || ''sturake'' || —
| to fall || ''sturake'' || —
|-
|-
| to carry, bring (on foot) <small>(trans.)</small> || ''dumbhake'' || ''dårbhake''
| to carry, bring (on foot, generally in the hand(s)) <small>(trans.)</small> || ''dumbhake'' || ''dårbhake''
|-
|-
| to carry, bring (using a vehicle) <small>(trans.)</small> || ''tulьje'' || ''lerjike''
| to carry, bring (on foot, on the head) <small>(trans.)</small> || ''luṇṭake'' || ''lorṭake''
|-
|-
| to pull <small>(trans.)</small> || ''khulike'' || ''kharliake''
| to carry, bring (on foot, on the shoulders or the back) <small>(trans.)</small> || ''giṭake'' || ''gertake''
|-
| to carry, bring (using a vehicle) <small>(trans.)</small> || ''tulje'' || ''lerjike''
|-
| to pull, drag <small>(trans.)</small> || ''khulike'' || ''kharlyake''
|}
|}
As far as morphology is concerned, most of them are regular class 1 or 2 verbs, except for:
As far as morphology is concerned, most of them are regular class 1 or 2 verbs, except for:
* ''lulke'' is highly irregular, with the irregular present singular ''lå, lin, liven'', suppletive past (''dām-, dāmek'') and perfect (''elīs-, elīsa'') stems, as well as the irregular optative stem ''lūy-''.
* ''lulke'' is highly irregular, with the irregular present singular ''lå, lin, liven'', suppletive past (''dām-, dāmek'') and perfect (''elīs-, elīsa'') stems, as well as the irregular optative stem ''lau-''.
* ''peithake'' has the contracted 3S past ''pat''.
* ''mṛcce'' is a regular class 2 verb except for the suppletive past stem ''pañc-, pañcek''.
* ''mṛcce'' is a regular class 2 verb except for the suppletive past stem ''pañc-, pañcek''.
* ''lįke'' and ''mųke'' are irregular vocalic stems, behaving as *lis- and *mus- in the present (ablauted in both) and past.
* ''lįke'' and ''mųke'' are irregular vocalic stems, behaving as *lis- and *mus- in the present (ablauted in both) and past.
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Three verbs are used for different ways of going without any external mean:
Three verbs are used for different ways of going without any external mean:
* to go, walk = ''lulke'' (mono), ''peithake'' (multi)
* to go, walk = ''lulke'' (mono), ''mbiṇḍhe'' (multi)
* to run = ''mṛcce'' (mono), ''mālchake'' (multi)
* to run = ''mṛcce'' (mono), ''mālchake'' (multi)
* to swim = ''lįke'' (mono), ''lærṣake'' (multi)
* to swim = ''lįke'' (mono), ''lærṣake'' (multi)
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One verb pair is independent of means of transport, and is composed by ''girake'' (monodirectional, translated as "to go towards, to move in the direction of") and ''dulde'' (multidirectional or adirectional, translated as "to move"). These are also used when the means of transport is unknown, but in the future intentional it is often used interchangeably with "to go" (''igirālta'' vs. ''elīsālta''; multidirectional verbs are rarely found in this tense).
One verb pair is independent of means of transport, and is composed by ''girake'' (monodirectional, translated as "to go towards, to move in the direction of") and ''dulde'' (multidirectional or adirectional, translated as "to move"). These are also used when the means of transport is unknown, but in the future intentional it is often used interchangeably with "to go" (''igirālta'' vs. ''elīsālta''; multidirectional verbs are rarely found in this tense).


Three verbs denote transport of something and the on foot/in a vehicle contrast is still meaningful:
Five verbs denote transport of something and the on foot/in a vehicle contrast is still meaningful:
* ''dumbhake'' (mono), ''dårbhake'' (multi) refers to carrying or bringing something on foot.
* ''dumbhake'' (mono), ''dårbhake'' (multi) refers to carrying or bringing something on foot, held in the hands or with the hands; ''giṭake'' (mo)/''gertake'' (mu) and ''luṇṭake'' (mo)/''lorṭake'' (mu) refer to the same action, but the object is carried on the shoulders or on the back for the former pair and on the head for the latter pair.
* ''tulьje'' (mono), ''lerjike'' (multi) refers to carrying or bringing something in or using a vehicle.
* ''tulje'' (mono), ''lerjike'' (multi) refers to carrying or bringing something in or using a vehicle.
* ''khulike'' (mono), ''kharliake'' (multi) refers to pulling something (no matter how).
* ''khulike'' (mono), ''kharliake'' (multi) refers to pulling something (no matter how).


The remaining six verbs denote different kinds of movement: ''buñjñake'' (to run (water only)) ''pṝke, pārlake'' (to roll), ''nittake, nērpake'' (to climb), ''mųke, mårṣake'' (to jump), ''ñulge, ñoerake'' (to crawl), ''sturake'' (to fall). Some grammarians also include ''mūmikke'' (to dance), despite it not having a mono/multidirectional distinction<ref>Some daughter languages of Chlouvānem do, cf. Līlasuṃghāṇi vernacular ''molke'' (to dance (monodirectional)), ''momuëe'' (to dance (multidirectional)).</ref>.
The remaining six verbs denote different kinds of movement: ''buñjñake'' (to run (water only)) ''pṝke, pārlake'' (to roll), ''nittake, nērpake'' (to climb), ''mųke, mårṣake'' (to jump), ''ñulge, ñoerake'' (to crawl), ''sturake'' (to fall). Some grammarians also include ''mūmikke'' (to dance), despite it not having a mono/multidirectional distinction.


===Case usage===
===Case usage===
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* '''source''' is expressed by the ''ablative case'' (typical singular ending ''-ų'')
* '''source''' is expressed by the ''ablative case'' (typical singular ending ''-ų'')
* '''state''' is expressed by the ''locative case'' (typical singular ending ''-e'') or by putting the verb in locative-trigger voice.
* '''state''' is expressed by the ''locative case'' (typical singular ending ''-e'') or by putting the verb in locative-trigger voice.
Most verbs are used with either destination or source or both; state is used more rarely, and more often with multidirectional verbs.
Most verbs are used with either destination or source or both; state is used more rarely, and more often with multidirectional verbs. Uniquely, the '''vod-''' prefix (meaning "avoiding") requires relative position, expressed in the ''exessive case'' (as for positional verbs).


The pairs for "to fly", "to float in the air", "to float on water", "to carry by vehicle", and "to pull" state the means of transport with the instrumental case; "to ride, mount" and "to go with a vehicle" do the same if the goer is not leading/driving the vehicle or animal him/herself. "To jump" also uses the instrumental case if the means of transport is ''paimpai'' (pogo stick).
The pairs for "to fly", "to float in the air", "to float on water", "to carry by vehicle", and "to pull" state the means of transport with the instrumental case; "to ride, mount" and "to go with a vehicle" do the same if the goer is not leading/driving the vehicle or animal him/herself. "To jump" also uses the instrumental case if the means of transport is ''paimpai'' (pogo stick).
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Those verbs which are transitive even in the unprefixed form can effectively have two different objects:
Those verbs which are transitive even in the unprefixed form can effectively have two different objects:
: ''ñariū naviṣyu āndimbhu'' "I, on foot, bring the book up the mountain"
: ''ñaryū naviṣyu āndimbhu'' "I, on foot, bring the book up the mountain"
: ''martu cūllu kamipūrṣu'' "I regularly drive by car around the city"
: ''martu cūllu kamipūrṣu'' "I regularly drive by car around the city"
While this is often clear by context, there is a popular way to change the original transitive object (in these two cases, "book" and "car" respectively) to something else: if it's the thing driven, the instrumental case (or trigger) is used - cf. ''martu cūllap kamipūrṣu'' -; if it's the thing being brought, carried, or pulled, the ''lā'' (with) particle is used - cf. ''ñariū naviṣyęs lā āndimbhu''. In this latter case, ''lenta'' (together with) is usually used for the comitative sense - cf. ''ñariū naviṣyęs lā liliai buneyi lenta āndimbhu'' "I, on foot, bring the book up the mountain with my sister".
While this is often clear by context, there is a popular way to change the original transitive object (in these two cases, "book" and "car" respectively) to something else: if it's the thing driven, the instrumental case (or trigger) is used - cf. ''martu cūllap kamipūrṣu'' -; if it's the thing being brought, carried, or pulled, the ''lā'' (with) particle is used - cf. ''ñaryū naviṣyęs lā āndimbhu''. In this latter case, ''lenta'' (together with) is usually used for the comitative sense - cf. ''ñaryū naviṣyęs lā lilyai buneyi lenta āndimbhu'' "I, on foot, bring the book up the mountain with my sister".
 
Complements such as "from one X to another" are rendered by repeating the same term twice, first in the ablative and then in the dative, and the verb typically gets the prefix ''sam-'' denoting movement towards the next object in a set:
: ''ogin junyų junyom sammodhē'' "the honeybee flies from flower to flower"


===Uses of verbs===
===Uses of verbs===
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: ''jāyim tarlāmahom liven'' – the girl goes/is going (walks/is walking) to school.
: ''jāyim tarlāmahom liven'' – the girl goes/is going (walks/is walking) to school.
: ''keikom såtap vasau'' – I took the subway to the park.
: ''keikom såtap vasau'' – I took the subway to the park.
: ''liliā ñæltai kitom jaje janāyų iliha'' – my sisters have [just] swum home in the igarapé from the port.
: ''lilyā ñæltai kitom jaje janāyų iliha'' – my sisters have [just] swum home in the igarapé from the port.
Note, in the last example, all three locative complements: the use of the locative case means that the whole action developed in the same place - concretely, that the igarapé was the way they followed home from the port.<br/>See also this example for a (maybe more familiar) movement on land:
Note, in the last example, all three locative complements: the use of the locative case means that the whole action developed in the same place - concretely, that the igarapé was the way they followed home from the port.<br/>See also this example for a (maybe more familiar) movement on land:
: ''hælinaika taite juniāmiti lārvājuṣų saṃryojyami lātimom vasau'' – I took Line 2 [of the Līlasuṃghāṇa Subway] from the Blossoming Temple [station] to Central Saṃryojyam [station].
: ''hælinaika taite junyāmiti lārvājuṣų saṃryojyami lātimom vasau'' – I took Line 2 [of the Līlasuṃghāṇa Subway] from the Blossoming Temple [station] to Central Saṃryojyam [station].


The four main uses of multidirectional verbs are:
The four main uses of multidirectional verbs are:
# Habitual actions:
# Habitual actions:
#: ''jāyim tarlāmahom peithē'' – the girl goes (walks) to school (regularly, every schoolday)
#: ''jāyim tarlāmahom mbeṇḍhē'' – the girl goes (walks) to school (regularly, every schoolday)
#: ''saminą liliā ñæltai jaje lærṣaika'' – when they were children, my sisters regularly swam in the igarapé.
#: ''nūryāra lilyā ñæltai jaje lærṣaika'' – when they were children, my sisters regularly swam in the igarapé.
# Movement inside a specific location (often expressed with locative-trigger voice), without any specified direction.
# Movement inside a specific location (often expressed with locative-trigger voice), without any specified direction.
#: ''jaja lærṣērā'' – as for the igarapé, someone is swimming in there. (literally "the igarapé, it is being swum")
#: ''jaja lærṣērā'' – as for the igarapé, someone is swimming in there. (literally "the igarapé, it is being swum")
#: ''marte peithįm'' – we walk around the city. (cf. Russian phrases with ''по'' as in ''мы ходим по городу'')
#: ''marte mbeṇḍhinta'' – we walk around the city. (cf. Russian phrases with ''по'' as in ''мы ходим по городу'')
# Gnomic or potential meanings (the latter are usually not marked with the potential ''junia'' if it's a natural trait - see second example):
# Gnomic or potential meanings (the latter are usually not marked with the potential ''junia'' if it's a natural trait - see second example):
#: ''gūṇai mordhāhai'' – birds fly.
#: ''gūṇai mordhāhai'' – birds fly.
#: ''sūrṣirāhe lalāruṇai pāmvyų lilų nanū dårbhāhaite'' – large lalāruṇai [can] carry more than three people.
#: ''sūrṣirāhe lalāruṇai pāmvyų lilų širē dårbhāhaite'' – large lalāruṇai [can] carry more than three people.
# In the past and in both future tenses, they can mark completed movements, that is, movement to a place and then back again. The perfect has roughly the meaning of "...to have just come back".
# In the past and in both future tenses, they can mark completed movements, that is, movement to a place and then back again. The perfect has roughly the meaning of "...to have just come back".
#: ''liliā buneya galiākinom mordhek'' – my older sister went (flew) to Galiākina [and came back].
#: ''lilyā buneya ajāɂilbādhyom mordhek'' – my older sister went (flew) to Ajāɂilbādhi [and came back].
#: ''liliā buneya galiākinom mudhek'' – my older sister went (flew) to Galiākina [and she was still there at the time relevant to the topic] – as a monodirectional verb, it may also mean "she was flying/going to Galiākina".
#: ''lilyā buneya ajāɂilbādhyom mudhek'' – my older sister went (flew) to Ajāɂilbādhi [and she was still there at the time relevant to the topic] – as a monodirectional verb, it may also mean "she was flying/going to Ajāɂilbādhi".
#: ''liliā buneya galiākinom umudha'' – my older sister has gone (has flown) to Galiākina [she's still there].
#: ''lilyā buneya ajāɂilbādhyom umudha'' – my older sister has gone (has flown) to Ajāɂilbādhi [she's still there].
 
====Pluri-prefixed motion verbs====
When more than two prefixes are stacked, the one which the object will refer to is the closest to the root, cf. ''vodūmṛcce'' "approach by running while avoiding something" vs. ''ūvodamṛcce'' "avoid while running closer to something":
: ''kita nanāt ūnimat vodūbamṛcam'' "I have approached home by running, avoiding that street."
: ''nanā ūnima kitom ūvodamṛcam'' "I have avoided that street while running closer to home."
 
====To wear, put on, take off====
Chlouvānem does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there are seven different verbs depending on the part of the body for "to wear" and "to put on", and seven more (paired with these) for "to take off".<br/>
Despite the apparent complexity of such a system, they are completely regular and built in a logical way, with "lative" prefixes for the wear/put on verb and "ablative" for the take off one:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk<br/><small>(Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings)</small> || kamikyāke || karakyāke || ''ukyā'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunaike || karajunaike || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck <small>(hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...)</small> || āṃlāṇṭake || yanalāṇṭake || ''lāṇṭam'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists <small>(gloves, bracelets...)</small> || kamidhānake || karadhānake || ''dhāna'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk)<br/>Trousers, pants || nampājike || nanipājike || ''pājya'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || ānsnīrṣmake || yanasnīrṣmake || rowspan=2 | ''snīrṣmas'' "blanket"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || kamisnīrṣmake || karasnīrṣmake
|}


====Prefixed motion verbs====
Note that the sense of "to wear" is most usually translated with patient-trigger voice - e.g. ''pāṇḍire jūnekah ātvitei kamikyāyē'' "(s)he wears white robes" - while "to put on" with agent-trigger voice ''pāṇḍire jūneku kamitekyāyē'' "(s)he puts/is putting on white robes".


====Pluri-prefixed motion verbs====
A few more specific verbs exist, like for example the pair ''kamilāṇṭake''/''karalāṇṭake'', used for putting on/taking off a ''lāṇṭepenai'' (colloquially just ''penai''), a kind of net made of Calemerian juta (''lāriṭa'') usually worn by adolescent girls (traditionally it was worn by unmarried women) with "cotton" hair (''bhadvausāk''<ref>Plural only, shaped on ''pārāk'' (hair).</ref>, or how Chlouvānem people call "Afro-textured hair").


==Notes==
==Notes==


[[Category:Chlouvānem]]
[[Category:Chlouvānem]]
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