Cumbraek: Difference between revisions

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Most adjectives follow the noun they qualify and must agree in gender and number with that noun.  
Most adjectives follow the noun they qualify and must agree in gender and number with that noun.  


A few adjectives are regularly preposed, notably ''hen''<sup>L</sup> 'old' and ''penn''<sup>L</sup> 'chief'. These adjectives always cause lenition to a following noun (e.g. ''hen wur'' 'old man').
A few adjectives are regularly preposed, notably ''hen''<sup>L</sup> "old" and ''penn''<sup>L</sup> "chief, head". These adjectives always cause lenition to a following noun (e.g. ''hen wur'' "old man").


Adjectives following feminine singular nouns undergo lentition (e.g. ''gwrek voar'' 'large woman'). Where possible they also undergo the change of ''i'' → ''e'' and ''u'' → ''o'' (e.g. ''ci gwinn, cath wenn'' 'white dog, white cat', ''gur druk, gwrek dhrok'' 'bad man, bad woman').  
Adjectives following feminine singular nouns undergo lentition (e.g. ''gwrek voar'' 'large woman'). Monosyllables containing either ''i'' or ''u'' as their main vowel also undergo [[Cumbraek#Vowel Mutations|Feminisation]], i.e. the change of ''i'' → ''e'' and ''u'' → ''o'' (e.g. ''ci gwinn, cath wenn'' "white dog, white cat", ''gur druk, gwrek dhrok'' "bad man, bad woman'"). Certain adjectives with ''i'' resist this change, e.g. ''gwir'' "true", ''dir'' "certain", ''hir'' "long", ''trist'' "sad".


A few adjectives retain old plural forms, used following a plural noun. These are ''bechan'' 'small' pl. ''bechen', ''yowank'' 'young' pl. ''yowenk'' and ''maruw'' 'dead' pl. ''meriw''.
A few adjectives retain old plural forms, used following a plural noun. These are ''bechan'' "small" pl. ''bechen'', ''yowank'' "young" pl. ''yowenk'' and ''maruw'' "dead" pl. ''meriw''.


An '''exclamative''' adjective can be formed by adding ''-het'' to the positive (e.g. ''gwinnet'' 'how white!, so white!', ''glanhet'' 'how clean!, so clean!'). The adverb ''mar'' 'how, so' can also be used with longer adjectives to produce an exclamative (e.g. ''mar dhiwedhar'' 'so late').  
An '''exclamative''' adjective can be formed by adding ''-het'' to the positive (e.g. ''gwinnhet'' "how white!, so white!", ''glanhet'' "how clean!, so clean!"). The adverb ''mar'' "how, so" can also be used with longer adjectives to produce an exclamative (e.g. ''mar dhiwedhar'' "so late").  


The '''equative'' is formed with the adverb ''cen''<sup>L</sup> 'as' preceding the positive adjective (e.g. ''cen winn a'r err'' 'as white as the snow').  
====Comparison====
The '''equative''' is formed with the adverb ''cen''<sup>L</sup> "as" + the positive adjective (e.g. ''cen winn ag err'' "as white as snow").


The ''''comparative'''' adjective is formed by adding ''-ach'' to the positive adjective, and the superlative takes ''-hav'' (e.g. ''gwinnach'' 'whiter', ''gwinnav'' 'whitest', ''caledach'' 'harder', ''calettav'' 'hardest').  
The '''comparative''' adjective is formed by adding ''-ach'' "-er" to the positive adjective, and the '''superlative''' takes ''-hav'' "-est" (e.g. ''gwinnach'' "whiter", ''gwinnhav'' "whitest", ''caledach'' "harder", ''calettav'' "hardest").  


The following adjectives are compared irregularly:
The following adjectives are compared irregularly:
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| near
| near
| ''agos''
| ''agos''
| ''cen nes''
| ''cen agos''
| ''nes''
| ''nes''
| ''nessav''
| ''nessav''
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| ''bechan''
| ''bechan''
| ''cen vechan''
| ''cen vechan''
| ''ley''
| ''le''
| ''leyhav''
| ''lehav''
|-
|-
| good
| good
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| old
| old
| ''hen''
| ''hen''
| ''hinhet''
| ''cen hen''
| ''hin''
| ''hin''
| ''hinhav''
| ''hinhav''

Revision as of 15:33, 13 July 2016


Cumbraek
Cumbraek
Pronunciation[[Help:IPA|kʌmˈbɾæːk]]
Created by
Native toEngland, Scotland
Early form

Cumbraek is a modern reconstruction of the lost medieval language of Cumbric, a Brythonic Celtic tongue once spoken in parts of southern Scotland and northern England.

Phonology and Orthography

Consonants

The consonant inventory for Cumbrek is as follows:

Bilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal      m      n      ŋ
Plosive p    b t̪    d̪ k    g
Fricative f    v θ    ð s      ʃ      x      h     
Affricate t͡ʃ    d͡ʒ
Approximant ʍ    w j
Trill      r
Flap or tap      ɾ
Lateral app.      l      ɫ

Vowels & Diphthongs

Cumbrek can be described as having three groups of vowel sounds:

  1. the variant vowels, which have long and short forms
  2. the long vowels, which arose historically from vowel sequences
  3. the diphthongs

The variant and long vowels are represented by the following inventory:

Front Central Back
Close iː           ʉ(ː)      u(ː)
Near-close ɪ             ʊ
Close-mid eː           oː
Mid ə
Open-mid ɛ      ʌ    ɔ(ː)
Near-open
Open a(ː)     

All of Cumbrek's true diphthongs are falling and consist of a vowel + either /i̯/ or /u̯/.

+ i̯ + u̯
Near-close ɪu̯
Mid əi̯
Open-mid ɛi̯    ɔi̯ ɛu̯    ɔu̯
Open au̯

Variant Vowels

Variant vowels may be long or short according to their environment. In most cases, except /a(ː)/, the short forms are more open than their long counterpart, much as in English. Both long and short sounds are represented by the same graph(s) (a, e, i, o, oo, ou or u) and vowel length must be determined by environment:

  • Long vowels occur only in monosyllables where the syllable ends in a single consonant or no consonant (-VC, -V), e.g. da /daː/, tek /teːk/.
  • Short vowels occur in all polysyllables; in monosyllables ending in more than one consonant (-VCC(C)) and in proclitics, e.g. gware /gwarɛ/, darn /daɾn/, in (proclitic) /ɪn/.

Additionally, the vowel written u has a third variant form /ʌ/, which occurs in non-final syllables of polysyllablic words and in proclitics, e.g. Cumbrek /kʌmbrek/, du (proclitic) /dʌ/. In other short environments, the sound is /ʊ/, e.g. cumm /kʊm/, parun /paɾʊn/.

Note that the digraphs th, dh and ch are considered to be single letters, so monosyllables ending with these sounds have long vowels, e.g. cath /kaːθ/.

Long Vowels

The long vowels /aː/, /eː/ and /oː/ are always long and derive from the merger of earlier vowel sequences. Where the sequences ae, ee, oe occur in word-final position they take the primary stress.

Long /ɔː/, which is sometimes realised as [oa], is usually only permitted to occur in monosyllables and is replaced by /ɔ/ in other environments (e.g. skoat "shadow" /skɔːt/, skodyon "shadows" /skɔdjon/).

Orthography

Cumbraek is written with the Latin alphabet and uses the following letters.

a b c/k ch d dh e f g h i j l m n o p r s t th u v w y

The table below shows the correspondences between letters and pronounciation.

Graph IPA Comments
Consonants
b /b/
c, k /k/ c occurs word initially and in the digraph ck, k occurs everywhere else
/g/ word-finally, before a voiced sound in the next word
ch /x/
d /d/
dh /ð/
f /f/
g /g/
h /h/ word-initially
Ø between vowels
j /d͡ʒ/
l /l/
m /m/
n /n/
p /p/ in most environments
/b/ word-finally, before a voiced initial
r /ɾ/
rr /r/
s /s/ generally written <ss> between vowels
t /t/ in most environments
/d/ word finally, before a voiced initial
v /v/ v is a weak consonant, liable to be lost in final position unless a vowel initial follows
w /w/
y /j/ before vowels
Consonant Combinations
hw /ʍ/
ll /ɫ(ː)/ geminated between vowels when following the stress
lht [l̩t] l is devoiced before ht
ng /ŋ(ː)/ geminated between vowels when following the stress
nng, ngg /ŋg/
rr /r(ː)/ geminated between vowels when following the stress
rht [r̩t] r is devoiced before ht
sh /ʃ/
tsh /t͡ʃ/ mostly borrowed words
Variant Vowels
a /aː/ long
/a/ short
e /eː/ long
/ɛ/ short
i /iː/ long
/ɪ/ short
o /oː/ long
/ɔ/ short
oo /uː/ long
/ʊ/ short
ou /ʉː/ long
/ʉ/ short
u /uː/ long
/ʊ/ short, in monosyllables & word-final syllables
/ʌ/ in non-final syllables and proclitics
y /ɪ/ in word-final, unstressed syllables only
Long Vowels
ae /aː/ takes stress in final syllables
ay /aː/
ee /eː/ takes stress in final syllables
oa /ɔː/
oe /oː/ takes stress in final syllables
uw /uː/
Diphthongs
ai /əɨ̯/
aw /au̯/
ei /ɛɨ̯/ takes stress in final syllables
ey /ɛɨ̯/
ew /ɛu̯/
iw /ɪu̯/
oy /ɔɨ̯/
ow /ɔu̯/


Diacritics

Cumbraek makes occasional use of three diacritics:

  • the acute accent is used to show an unexpected long vowel (e.g. bónt 'they may be'); when it occurs in the final syllable, it also marks stress (e.g. cantín 'canteen')
  • the grave accent is used to show an unexpected stressed syllable (e.g. gràvity 'gravity'); it is also used to mark a short vowel in monosyllables (e.g. bùs 'bus')
  • the trema is used to mark diaeresis and is place on the second vowel of a sequence (e.g. troäv 'I turn', troöun 'I was turning')

Sound Changes

Consonant Mutations

As with all modern Celtic languages, Cumbraek makes extensive use of initial consonant mutations to help signal grammatical and syntactic information. Cumbraek has three main mutations: lenition (mootthei), spirantisation (anadhlolhei) and nasalisation (troonolhei). There is a fourth type of mutation called aspiration (anadhleth) in which word-initial vowels take an h'- before them.

The changes caused by the mutations are summarised in the following table.

Radical Lenition Spirantisation Nasalisation
p b f
t d th
c g ch
b v m
d dh n
g h / w / - ng
gw w (w) nw
j ny
m v

Lenited g disappears before a consonant, becomes w before words in go-, gu-, goo- and becomes h- before other vowels, e.g. gre "flock" → i re "his flock", gur "man, husband" → i wur "his husband", geryadour "dictionary" → i heryadour "his dictionary".

Examples:

  • Lenition: i benn "his head", de dat "your dad", i gi "his dog", er vanon "the lady", du Dhin Edin "to Edinburgh", war hat "on a road", i wrek "his wife", a vamm! "mum!".
  • Spirantisation: i fenn "her head", tri that "three dads", teyr chath "three cats".
  • Nasalisation: naw manon "nine ladies", in Nin Edin "in Edinburgh", mung ngat "my road"
  • Aspiration: i h'ewidir "her uncle", an h'oungorn "our unicorn".

For brevity, words routinely causing mutations will be marked with superscript letters in this article: L for lenition, S for spirantisation, N for nasalisation and H for aspiration.

Vowel Mutations

Cumbraek also has two vowel mutations, which occur regularly. Feminisation is generally restricted to adjectives and causes an i to become e and a u to become o. Alternation is common in the formation of plurals and in certain verb forms, and causes the following changes:

Radical Alternate
a e
e i
o
ae ei / ie
ay ey
oy oo
a...a e...e
a...e e...i
a...o
o...o
a...u

In some cases, these changes work backwards (e.g. gwrek 'woman' has the plural form gwragedh).

Vowel Affection

I-affection and Y-affection are changes caused when a syllable containing either <i> or <y> is added to a word. I-affection causes the following changes to sounds in the original final syllable: a → e, ae → ie, ay → ey and o → e. Y-affection causes only the changes a → e and ay → ey.

Grammar

Articles

There is no indefinite article in Cumbraek, the noun alone is indefinite (e.g. gur 'man, a man', gwrek 'woman, a woman').

The definite article is er, sometimes reduced to 'r after a preposition ending in a vowel or after the locative verb ema (e.g. er gur 'the man', du'r egloos 'to the church').

The definite article causes lenition to feminine nouns (e.g. er wrek 'the woman').

Nouns

Nouns are either masculine or feminine in gender. Grammatical gender is an inherent fact of the noun and cannot always be deduced from the form or meaning of the word. Colloquially, nouns referring to persons sometimes alter their grammatical gender to reflect the natural gender of the person, for example the masculine noun er postidh "the postman, postal worker" could be rendered as er bostidh to mean "the postwoman".

Plurals may be formed in one of several ways:

  • by adding an ending, most commonly -ow, -yow, -yon, -on, -edh, -ot (e.g. cadow 'battles', dinyon 'people, men', cathot 'cats')
  • by alternation (e.g. bran 'raven' → bren, oyn 'lamb' → oon)
  • by adding an ending plus alternation (e.g. gwrek 'woman' → gwragedh, map 'boy, son' → mebyon)
  • irregularly (e.g. ci 'dog' → cun, didh 'day' → diow, ti 'house' → tei, hwair 'sister' → hwioredh, broadur 'brother' → brodir)

A number of words, including many plant and tree names and many animals, have a base form with a collective meaning to which the singulative endings -inn (masc.) or -enn (fem.) are added (e.g. deriw 'oak trees' → derwenn 'oak tree', moch 'pigs' → mochinn 'a pig').

Nouns are not formally marked for case, but the following observations may be noted:

  • the genitive of possession is shown by placing the genitive noun after the thing possessed (e.g. ti Neven 'Neven's house', gwrek mu tat 'my father's wife')
  • some intransitive verbs such as devot 'come' and munet 'go' permit the indirect object to behave as if it were the direct object of a transitive verb, allowing the preposition to be dropped (e.g. compare mi carav Yowann 'I love John' with mi av Lounnen 'I am going (to) London').
  • nouns in the vocative are preceded by the particle aL (e.g. a Vathow! 'Matthew!'). This particle may be dropped in speech, particularly before a vowel, but lenition is always retained (e.g. oucher da, Vathow 'good evening, Matthew').

Adjectives

Most adjectives follow the noun they qualify and must agree in gender and number with that noun.

A few adjectives are regularly preposed, notably henL "old" and pennL "chief, head". These adjectives always cause lenition to a following noun (e.g. hen wur "old man").

Adjectives following feminine singular nouns undergo lentition (e.g. gwrek voar 'large woman'). Monosyllables containing either i or u as their main vowel also undergo Feminisation, i.e. the change of ie and uo (e.g. ci gwinn, cath wenn "white dog, white cat", gur druk, gwrek dhrok "bad man, bad woman'"). Certain adjectives with i resist this change, e.g. gwir "true", dir "certain", hir "long", trist "sad".

A few adjectives retain old plural forms, used following a plural noun. These are bechan "small" pl. bechen, yowank "young" pl. yowenk and maruw "dead" pl. meriw.

An exclamative adjective can be formed by adding -het to the positive (e.g. gwinnhet "how white!, so white!", glanhet "how clean!, so clean!"). The adverb mar "how, so" can also be used with longer adjectives to produce an exclamative (e.g. mar dhiwedhar "so late").

Comparison

The equative is formed with the adverb cenL "as" + the positive adjective (e.g. cen winn ag err "as white as snow").

The comparative adjective is formed by adding -ach "-er" to the positive adjective, and the superlative takes -hav "-est" (e.g. gwinnach "whiter", gwinnhav "whitest", caledach "harder", calettav "hardest").

The following adjectives are compared irregularly:

Positive Equative Comparative Superlative
near agos cen agos nes nessav
small bechan cen vechan le lehav
good da custadhul gwell gorow
bad druk cunruk goeth goetthav
old hen cen hen hin hinhav
large moar cumment moy moyhav
young yowank cen yowank yow yohwav

Pronouns

Personal

Subject Object Possessive Infixed
1sg. mi -m mu(n)N 'mN
2sg ti -thL deL (jeL) 'thL
3sg m. ev -yH iL 'yL
3sg f. hi -sH iSH 'ySH
1pl ni -nH anH
2pl hwi -ch ach
3pl oo -sH owNH


The subject pronouns are used:

  • before a personal verb to express the subject (e.g. mi carav 'I love')
  • as auxiliary pronouns, added to the end of a verb by a hyphen for clarity (e.g. eth welas-ev 'he saw you')
  • as auxiliary pronouns, in conjunction with possessive adjectives (e.g. i nen-hi 'her grandmother')
  • independently following prepositions and conjunctions (e.g. mi a thi 'me and you')
  • as the object of an imperative verb (e.g. ladh oo 'kill them')

The object pronouns must be attached to a preverbal particle (e.g. eth garav 'I love you').

The possessive pronouns are used:

  • as possessive adjectives, before the noun they qualify (e.g. i thi 'her house', ow nwely 'their bed')
  • as the object of a verb noun (e.g. de welet 'seeing you', i gano 'singing it')
  • with -houn to produce reflexive pronouns (e.g. mu-houn 'myself', an-houn 'ourselves')

NB: mu is used before a consonant and mun before a vowel. The form je is a colloquial spelling of de, representing a more general pronunciation.

The infixed pronouns are contracted forms of the possessive pronouns used following prepositions and conjunctions ending a vowel (e.g. a'm tat 'and my father', o'y wlat 'from his country').

Possessive pronouns proper only exist in the first and second person singular: mow 'mine' and tow 'your'. The so-called 'genitive particle' now is used with the subject pronouns to produce possessive pronouns in the other persons (e.g. now-hi 'hers', now-ni 'ours').

Demonstrative

The demonstrative pronouns display a three-way distinction, with hunn referring to objects close at hand, hunnedh referring to objects out of sight or abstract and hunnunt referring to objects in sight but distant. Each of these has masculine, feminine and plural forms.

Masc. Fem. Plural
this hunn honn hinn
that hunnedh honnedh hinnedh
that yonder hunnunt honnunt hinnunt

The hunn and hunnedh forms may be used as demonstrative adjectives following a definite noun (e.g. er gur hunn 'this man', er cestill hinnedh 'that castle'). Hunnunt is replaced by hunt 'yonder' in this use (e.g. er wragedh hunt 'those women').

Interrogative

what peth
pebeth
pronouns
peL adjective
who puwL
which one(s) p'oun singular
p're plural
how many petL
where cuS, cud
when p'oar
how pe dhel'
why per
how much pe vent

Verbs

Regular Verbs

Indicative Imperative
Present Imperfect Preterite Pluperfect
1sg
2sg
3sg
1pl
2pl
3pl
Imp
parav
peridh
per
paren
paret
parant
perir
parun
parout
pare
parem
parewch
parent
perit
peres
perest
peris
parsam
parsawch
parsant
parat
parsun
parsout
parse
parsem
parsewch
parsent
persit
-
par
paret
parem
perit
parent
-

Verbal Particles

Verbal particles are key to Cumbraek syntax, indicating subordination, negation, interrogatives and more.

Affirmative
e
edh
'dummy' particle at the start of a sentence E levir Melik Cumbraek 'Melik speaks Cumbraek'
infixes object pronouns Es gweles 'I saw her'
in place of a relative after adverbials Ar er mor e trigant '[It is] by the sea that they live'
meaning 'that' before subordinate clauses Ema govnok warnav ey prenidh 'I hope that you buy it'
aL the relative pronoun when the subject or object is antecedent Er din a garav 'The man whom I love'
the genitive relative Er verch a dheskidh i that 'The girl whose father you teach'
follows a focussed subject or object Ei ath gar 'I love you'
ruSL used before the preterite to form the perfect tense:
  • at the start of a sentence (spirantising)
  • in place of relative a (leniting)
Ru chuskus-ev er didh oll 'He has slept all day'
Er prit r'edes en newidh 'The meal which I have just eaten'
nuwS affirmative, somewhat emphatic particle Nuw adwoynav de dat 'Indeed, I know your father'
Negative
neSL
ned
used at the start of a sentence (spirantising) Ne chassa Yowann Maylok 'John doesn't hate Maylok'
negative relative (leniting) Er ti ne leskis du'r loar 'The house that did not burn down'
naS used before subordinate clauses Mi medhulyav ne do 'I think he won't come'
naS used in replies Am ceridh? Na charav 'Do you love me? No'
negative imperative Na sill a-vri 'Don't look down'
Interrogative
aL used at the start of a direct question A dhowidh amm Dhiw Gwener? 'Are you coming on Friday?'
introduces indirect questions Hi erchis a oot lessowur 'She asked if you are a vegetarian'
ay used at the start of a focussed sentence Ay Frankek a lavrant? 'Is is French that they speak?'
paneS
paned
introduces a direct or indirect question expecting an affirmative answer Panem credidh? 'Don't you believe me?'

Prepositions

Simple

A-Stems I-Stems O-Stems Irregular

stem:
1sg
2sg
3sg m
3sg f
1pl
2pl
3pl
amm 'about'
amdan-
amdanav
amdanat
amdano
amdeni
amdanamm
amdanawch
amdandhou
gant 'with'
gan-
geniv
genit
gantho
genthi
geninn
genouch
ganthou
heb 'without'
heb-
hebov
hebot
hebdho
hebdhi
hebonn
hebowch
hebdhou
is 'below'
iss-
issov
issot
isto
isti
issonn
issowch
istou
du 'to'
du-
dummy
dutty
dudho
dudhi
dunny
duwchy
dudhou

Other prepositions follow the same patterns:

  • A-stems: wodan 'under' (wodan-), a 'of, from' (an-), war 'on' (warn-)
  • I-stems: wurth 'against' (wurth-)
  • O-stems:
    • like heb: er 'for' (er-), idhir 'between' (idhr-), in 'in' (inn-), rak 'before' (rag-), truw 'through' (truw-)
    • like is: ouch 'above' (ouch-), troas 'across' (tross-)

Compound

Syntax