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- Accented vowels á, é, í, ó, ú are long: /a: e: i: o: u:/ | - Accented vowels á, é, í, ó, ú are long: /a: e: i: o: u:/ | ||
Da words are stressed on the last <b>root</b> vowel. Most often, this turns out to be the penultimate syllable, or the last syllable if the word ends with a consonant. In a multi-syllable word, when the stress falls in an unusual place, it is sometimes denoted by an accent: á, é, í, ó, ú. | Da words are stressed on the last <b>root</b> vowel. Most often, this turns out to be the penultimate syllable, or the last syllable if the word ends with a consonant. In a multi-syllable word, when the stress falls in an unusual place, it is sometimes denoted by an accent: á, é, í, ó, ú. We will do this more often here than what is usually seen in Da texts, where accents may be omitted altogether. | ||
=Phonotactics= | =Phonotactics= | ||
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| I am learning Da. | | I am learning Da. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''Panudátú lussa pankoru kai, Tu harsa luis Meru kei Tuo kartú daisia Tú | |''Panudátú lussa pankoru kai, Tu harsa luis Meru kei Tuo kartú daisia Tú emnít o át mou panteo.'' | ||
|The Lord so loved the world... | |The Lord so loved the world... | ||
|- | |- | ||
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Da is an SVO language. Verbs are placed after the subject, adjectives follow the noun, and adverbs follow the verb. | Da is an SVO language. Verbs are placed after the subject, adjectives follow the noun, and adverbs follow the verb. | ||
It is not uncommon, however, to place a word or phrase in front of the sentence for additional emphasis. E.g. one would say ''Kasunotei du mí | It is not uncommon, however, to place a word or phrase in front of the sentence for additional emphasis. E.g. one would say ''Kasunotei du mí kamisháohuit'' (Today I am going to the store) instead of ''Du mí kamisháohuit kasunotei'' (I am going to the store today). | ||
Da adjectives are virtually indistinguishable from intransitive verbs. | Da adjectives are virtually indistinguishable from intransitive verbs. | ||
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A noun in Nominative has zero ending: ''su'' (water),'' dunotó'' (toy), ''punsé'' (tree), ''koixmihan'' (airplane). Note that with words in Nominative, the stress is always on the last syllable. | A noun in Nominative has zero ending: ''su'' (water),'' dunotó'' (toy), ''punsé'' (tree), ''koixmihan'' (airplane). Note that with words in Nominative, the stress is always on the last syllable. | ||
Composite verbs may have several subjects, all in nominative | Composite verbs may have several subjects, all in nominative (this usually applies to causative verbs) as well as several direct objects. | ||
Nominative is also used for the subjects of a sentence or a subordinate clause. | Nominative is also used for the subjects of a sentence or a subordinate clause. | ||
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For example, the verb ''mia'' (to move) may take an object -- the thing that is being moved. Therefore, the composite verb ''daimia'' (to think, lit. "to move in one's head") also takes a direct object, and, unlike in English, the phrase ''Du daimia kú'' (I am thinking '''of''' you) needs no prepositions. | For example, the verb ''mia'' (to move) may take an object -- the thing that is being moved. Therefore, the composite verb ''daimia'' (to think, lit. "to move in one's head") also takes a direct object, and, unlike in English, the phrase ''Du daimia kú'' (I am thinking '''of''' you) needs no prepositions. | ||
On the other hand, the verb ''sáttí'' (to learn, lit: "to come to know") has the second root ''tí'' (to come, to become) which in this form is intransitive (the transitive form of ''tia'' means "to bring") and the first root sá (to know). Therefore, ''sáttí'' should also have one direct object, and in ''Du sáttí Dau'' (I am learning Da) no adverbial is required before ''Dau''. | On the other hand, the verb ''sáttí'' (to learn, lit: "to come to know") has the second root ''tí'' (to come, to become) which in this form is intransitive (the transitive form of ''tia'' means "to bring") and the first root sá (to know). Therefore, ''sáttí'' should also have one direct object, which is grammatically "attaching" to its first part, and in ''Du sáttí Dau'' (I am learning Da) no adverbial is required before ''Dau''. | ||
====''Genitive''==== | ====''Genitive''==== | ||
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In particular, when used with Locative, ''-t-'', ''-s-'' and ''-x-'' attach after the locative marker and have the meaning of "to", "from" and "through", respectively. E.g. ''Du mí hui'''t''''' (I go home) vs. ''Du mí hui'''s''''' (I am leaving home) vs. ''Du mí nomimi'''x''''' (I am walking on a path); ''Karmel nessa taoruru dei'''t''' taolono'' (She put the pencil on the desk) vs. ''Karmel hassa taoruru dei'''s''' taolono'' (She took the pencil from the desk), etc. | In particular, when used with Locative, ''-t-'', ''-s-'' and ''-x-'' attach after the locative marker and have the meaning of "to", "from" and "through", respectively. E.g. ''Du mí hui'''t''''' (I go home) vs. ''Du mí hui'''s''''' (I am leaving home) vs. ''Du mí nomimi'''x''''' (I am walking on a path); ''Karmel nessa taoruru dei'''t''' taolono'' (She put the pencil on the desk) vs. ''Karmel hassa taoruru dei'''s''' taolono'' (She took the pencil from the desk), etc. | ||
''-s-'' and ''- | ''-s-'', ''-t-'' and ''-x-'' are doubled when they are used as infixes after a vowel. | ||
''-s-'' and ''-t-'' can also be used with Genitive (e.g. ''huomen duo'' "my husband" vs. ''huomen du'''ss'''o'' "my ex-husband") but such usage is more rare. | ''-s-'' and ''-t-'' can also be used with Genitive (e.g. ''huomen duo'' "my husband" vs. ''huomen du'''ss'''o'' "my ex-husband") but such usage is more rare. | ||
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===Verb=== | ===Verb=== | ||
Verbs in | Verbs in Da receive the endings ''-a'' (transitive) and "-i" (intransitive). As with other endings, if the root ends with the same vowel, it is not duplicated but receives the accent instead. Verbs do not conjugate. | ||
A large percentage of | A large percentage of Da verbs are ergative and change their meaning depending on whether they are used as transitive or intransitive verbs. For example: ''mí / mia'' (vi: goes, vt: moves /something/), ''tí'' / ''tia'' (vi: comes, vt: brings /something/), ''keli / kela'' (vi: errs, vt: breaks /something/) etc. | ||
Similarly, many verbs have a different meaning when used as ''modal'' verbs, that is, verbs followed by a ''t-''-adverbial. E.g. the word ''xí'', when used as an adjective, means "necessary", but the meaning is changed to "need, have to" when it is used as a modal verb: ''pa xí'' "necessary work" --> ''to xío pat'' "what has to be done". | Similarly, many verbs have a different meaning when used as ''modal'' verbs, that is, verbs followed by a ''t-''-adverbial. E.g. the word ''xí'', when used as an adjective, means "necessary", but the meaning is changed to "need, have to" when it is used as a modal verb: ''pa xí'' "necessary work" --> ''to xío pat'' "what has to be done". | ||
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There are no verb tenses in Da, but there are aspects. Unmodified verbs are assumed to be in imperfective aspect. The infixes ''-t-'' and ''-x-'' put them into prospective and perfective aspects, signifying the action that is about to start or has been completed. Quite often these aspects are translated into other languages using future and past tenses: ''Du si'''ss'''a tou síotenoxui duo!'' (I have seen it with my own two eyes!) or ''Ku kam'''t'''i pas katou!'' (You will pay for (doing) this!). On the other hand, a narrative like ''Palsunotei moi korudamen pali...'' (Once upon a time there lived a king...) usually does not require an aspect change. | There are no verb tenses in Da, but there are aspects. Unmodified verbs are assumed to be in imperfective aspect. The infixes ''-t-'' and ''-x-'' put them into prospective and perfective aspects, signifying the action that is about to start or has been completed. Quite often these aspects are translated into other languages using future and past tenses: ''Du si'''ss'''a tou síotenoxui duo!'' (I have seen it with my own two eyes!) or ''Ku kam'''t'''i pas katou!'' (You will pay for (doing) this!). On the other hand, a narrative like ''Palsunotei moi korudamen pali...'' (Once upon a time there lived a king...) usually does not require an aspect change. | ||
The infix ''- | The infix ''-x-'' produces the progressive aspect: compare ''Du maxxa sunoteoporomau katei'' (I am eating lunch now) and ''Du má honokanu sunotei pani'' (I eat meat every day). | ||
The prospective aspect is also used as imperative: ''Titti | The prospective aspect is also used as imperative: ''Titti kanait!'' "Come here!" | ||
====Infix ''-i-''==== | ====Infix ''-i-''==== | ||
The infix ''-i-'' is used with verbs and denotes imaginary actions. When put in the perfective aspect, it it used to mark actions that could happen, but never did (''subjunctive''). On the other hand, when it is used with verbs in the prospective aspect, it shows that the action may happen, оr may not, depending on the circumstances (''conditional''). | The infix ''-i-'' is used with verbs and denotes imaginary actions. When put in the perfective aspect, it it used to mark actions that could happen, but never did (''subjunctive''). On the other hand, when it is used with verbs in the prospective aspect, it shows that the action may happen, оr may not, depending on the circumstances (''conditional''). | ||
For example: ''Du tíss'''í''' ku títhías dú!'' (I would have come if you called me!) or ''Du pátt'''i'''a katou áias teu'' (I will do it if I have time). Compare this with: ''Du tissi ku | For example: ''Du tíss'''í''' ku títhías dú!'' (I would have come if you called me!) or ''Du pátt'''i'''a katou áias teu'' (I will do it if I have time). Compare this with: ''Du tissi ku títhías dú!'' (I came because you called me) and ''Du patta katou ás teu'' (I will do it for I have the time).i\ | ||
===Intransitive Verbs as Adjectives=== | ===Intransitive Verbs as Adjectives=== | ||
Da adjectives, from the grammatical point of view, do not differ from intransitive verbs. In a way, all Da adjectives are participles. They end with ''-i'' and go after the noun. | |||
Adjectives often play the role of a verb in a sentence, requiring no copula. For example, '' | Adjectives often play the role of a verb in a sentence, requiring no copula. For example, ''losí'' (beautiful) can be used in ''Ku nunmelo losí'' (You are a beautiful girl) as well as ''Nunmel ká losí roi'' (This girl is very beautiful). | ||
Just like verbs, adjectives can have aspects: ''Mihan | Just like verbs, adjectives can have aspects: ''Mihan losissi dili e nerekélao katei'' (The car, once beautiful, was now dirty and scratched). | ||
Another way of looking at adjectives is to see them as one-word subordinate clauses. The word '' | Another way of looking at adjectives is to see them as one-word subordinate clauses. The word ''losí'' is composed of two words, ''loi'' "good" and ''sí'' "look" and literally means "good-looking". One can look at it as the verb that means "to look good". The phrase ''nunmel losí'' can be equally well translated as "a beautiful girl", "a good-looking girl" and "a girl '''that '''looks good". | ||
===Adverbs and Adverbial Clauses=== | ===Adverbs and Adverbial Clauses=== | ||
Cha adverbs | Cha adverbs have no special ending: ''roi'' (strong, strongly), ''loi'' (good, well) etc. | ||
Adverbs are often used with | Adverbs are often used with the postfixes ''-t-'' for adverbs of goal or purpose, and ''-s-'' for cause or condition. With their dependent words, such adverbs form adverbial clauses that are ubiquitous in Da. Some of the most frequent uses of such adverbial clauses include: | ||
- with modal verbs, like '' | - with modal verbs, like ''rí'' (want, need), ''kí'' (can) etc.: ''Ku kí hít Dai?'' (Can you speak Da?); ''Du ri nertenepenat kú'' (I want to hug you). | ||
- with verbs like '' | - with verbs like ''tí'' (come, become), ''lí'' (let, allow) and similar: ''Du sáttí hít Dai'' (I learn to speak Cha). | ||
- when you state intent or purpose: '' | - when you state intent or purpose: ''Du tissi siat menmeu duo'' (I came to see my father). | ||
- when you state reason or cause: ''Karmen | - when you state reason or cause: ''Karmen skanai lorranuas'' (He is not in here because he is sick). | ||
Please note that the | Please note that the adverbial phrase can be quite developed, including a subject, object etc., e.g. ''Du rí ku pát katou xortei'' (I want you to do this immediately) is formed by taking ''Ku patta katou xortei'' (You will do this immediately) and turning it into a adverbial phrase by changing the ending ''-tta'' into ''-at'': ''patta'' (will do) -> ''pát'' (to do). | ||
When Genitive is used as a verb, it can also be turned into adverbial, e.g.: ''Pinócchio | When Genitive is used as a verb, it can also be turned into adverbial, e.g.: ''Pinócchio rí pantei nunménot keni'' "Pinocchio always wanted to be a real boy", or ''Men kelkouá siao'' "He was visibly upset". | ||
===Adverbs and Prepositions=== | ===Adverbs and Prepositions=== | ||
There are no prepositions in | There are no prepositions in Da, and the case system is not that extensive. Where the noun cases are not enough to express the relationship between the verb and the indirect object, adverbs are commonly used as links between the two. The range of adverbs and adverbial phrases used for this purpose is extensive: | ||
''Pantú | ''Pantú rí sáttit Dau'' (Everyone should learn Da; lit: Everyone should '''come to know''' Da) | ||
'' | ''Kimathitta dú Johnu'' (My name is John; lit: Say John to name me) | ||
In many cases when is an indirect object in English becomes the ''subject'' of a subordinate clause in Cha: | In many cases when is an indirect object in English becomes the ''subject'' of a subordinate clause in Cha: | ||
'' | ''Du pátpíhí ku du atharat taoruolanu kai!'' (Please give me this book! lit: I ask that you give me '''to have''' this book). | ||
If ''hara'' simply means "give (away), let go", the verb ''athara'', made up from ''at'' (to have) + ''hara'' (give) means "give to someone": ''Du ku áthara katou'' = ''Du hara ku át katou'' (I give this to you). | |||
Similarly, ''hia'' means "say" and '' | Similarly, ''hia'' means "say" and ''tonathia'', composed from ''hia'' and ''tonat'' "to hear" means "tell". So in ''Ku du tonathitta pantou! ''"Tell me everything!" both parts, ''tonat'' and ''hia'' share the same object, but have different subjects. | ||
The same role can also be played by a noun in an indirect case, e.g. '' | The same role can also be played by a noun in an indirect case, e.g. ''Du sorimí sori kelpatuo. Du sorsití sorsi tuo!'' "I am following the criminal. I am catching up with him!" (lit.: I go-behind behind of-criminal. I come-from-behind from-behind of-him!) | ||
Thus, the way indirect objects are introduced is most often "encoded" in the verb itself. This allows to quickly recognize them and attribute them to the right verb, at the same time keeping the sentence structure logical and removing the necessity to memorize prepositions and cases that go with each verb. | Thus, the way indirect objects are introduced is most often "encoded" in the verb itself. This allows to quickly recognize them and attribute them to the right verb, at the same time keeping the sentence structure logical and removing the necessity to memorize prepositions and cases that go with each verb. | ||
===Supine and Subordinate Clauses=== | ===Supine and Subordinate Clauses=== | ||
A | A Da verb can be put into noun cases, forming a supine. To do that you keep the verb ending ''-a'' or ''-i'' (sometimes, also ''-o'') and add the case ending after it. For example, ''má'' (eat) -- ''huoxon mao'' (eating room, dining room); ''daurai'' (rest, sleep) -- ''te dauraio'' (time of sleep, resting time). | ||
A supine is linked by its case ending to the main word it describes, but at the same time it can retain all words that were linked to it as a verb, forming a subordinate clause. Here are some examples: | A supine is linked by its case ending to the main word it describes, but at the same time it can retain all words that were linked to it as a verb, forming a subordinate clause. Here are some examples: | ||
'' | ''Du sai ku ríssiu du tonathiat paltou'' -- I know you wanted to tell me something (compare with: ''Ku rissi du tonathiat paltou'' "You wanted to tell me something" and ''Du tonta paltou'' "I will hear something"). | ||
''John | ''John maxxi té xentú tuo tío huit'' -- John was eating when his friend entered the house (compare with ''Xentú tuo tí huit'' "His friend enters the house"). | ||
The case in which the supine is placed determines the relationship between the main word and the subordinate clause: | The case in which the supine is placed determines the relationship between the main word and the subordinate clause: | ||
- when the supine is in Accusative, it | - when the supine is in Accusative, it describes a verb and can be translated using the English conjunction "that": ''Sorse siaopuo melme sia du sorttíu.'' ("From the window, mother saw that I was coming back" or "saw me coming back"); ''Du sassa tu sorttíttau! menme hia.'' ("I knew he would come back, said father"). | ||
- when the supine is in Genitive, it describes a noun. This noun is "raised" from being an object in the subordinate clause; that is, it is assumed to play the role of an object there. This can either be a direct object in Accusative (''tu | - when the supine is in Genitive, it describes a noun. This noun is "raised" from being an object in the subordinate clause; that is, it is assumed to play the role of an object there. This can either be a direct object in Accusative (''tu pansao'' "a well-known person"; ''to du essíssao sortei'' "something I've never seen before"), or an indirect object in Locative / Instrumental (''te maio'' "time of eating, dinner time"; ''mis noimío'' "a traveled path", ''siaotenoxú du sissao lorpaónu ká skí sít dori'' "the pair of eyes with which I have seen these horrors can not see any more" etc.) | ||
- when the supine is in Locative / Instrumental, it describes a verb and can be translated using such English conjunctions as "while" or "by" (''Melme sia | - when the supine is in Locative / Instrumental, it describes a verb and can be translated using such English conjunctions as "while" or "by" (''Melme sia du sorttíu síi sorsi siaopuo'' "Mother saw me coming back while (she was) looking out of the window.") | ||
Finally, supine can be used in Nominative, naming the action or quality, e.g. '' | Finally, supine can be used in Nominative, naming the action or quality, e.g. ''Romí dunpí'' ("Running is fun") or ''Losí moritlirta pankoru'' ("Beauty will save the world"). | ||
Note that if Genitive plays the role of a verb, it can also form supine: | Note that if Genitive plays the role of a verb, it can also form supine: | ||
'' | ''Tei du nunménoo dora du lua konmau'' -- When I was a little boy I liked candy (''Du nunmeno dora'' "I am a little boy", ''Du lua konmau'' "I like candy"). | ||
Please refer to the "Advanced Examples" for more examples of supine, which is very widely used in | Please refer to the "Advanced Examples" for more examples of supine, which is very widely used in Da. | ||
==Morphology== | ==Morphology== | ||
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Cha roots do not have an inherent part of speech attached to them; instead, each root word can freely transition between different parts of speech, and often has a separate meaning when it is used as a noun, verb etc. Of course all these meanings are closely related. Let us give just a couple of examples: | Cha roots do not have an inherent part of speech attached to them; instead, each root word can freely transition between different parts of speech, and often has a separate meaning when it is used as a noun, verb etc. Of course all these meanings are closely related. Let us give just a couple of examples: | ||
{| class="wikitable" border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" style="width: | {| class="wikitable" border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" style="width: 300px" | ||
|+'''Root '' | |+'''Root ''de''''' | ||
|'''Form''' | |'''Form''' | ||
|'''Translation''' | |'''Translation''' | ||
|'''Part of speech''' | |'''Part of speech''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|'' | |''dei'' | ||
|high, tall | |high, tall | ||
|Adjective | |Adjective | ||
|- | |- | ||
|'' | |''dea'' | ||
|lift | |lift | ||
|Transitive Verb | |Transitive Verb | ||
|- | |- | ||
|'' | |''deit'' | ||
|up | |up, onto | ||
|Adverb | |Adverb | ||
|- | |- | ||
|'' | |''dei'' | ||
|on | |on, above (also ''denai'') | ||
|Noun in Locative | |Noun in Locative | ||
|- | |- | ||
|'' | |''deix'' | ||
| | |over | ||
|Noun in Locative | |Noun in Locative | ||
|- | |- | ||
|'' | |''de'' | ||
|top | |top | ||
|Noun | |Noun | ||
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|'''Part of speech''' | |'''Part of speech''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |keli | ||
|wrong | |wrong | ||
|Adjective | |Adjective | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |keli | ||
|err (be wrong) | |err (be wrong) | ||
|Intransitive Verb | |Intransitive Verb | ||
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|'''Part of speech''' | |'''Part of speech''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |nei | ||
|be inside | |be inside | ||
|Intransitive Verb | |Intransitive Verb | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |nei | ||
|inner | |inner | ||
|Adjective | |Adjective | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |nei | ||
|in | |in (also ''nenai'') | ||
|Noun in Locative | |Noun in Locative | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |neit | ||
|into | |into | ||
|Noun in Locative | |Noun in Locative | ||
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Note that when a composite word is is used as certain part of speech, its meaning is always related to the last root's meaning for this part of speech. | Note that when a composite word is is used as certain part of speech, its meaning is always related to the last root's meaning for this part of speech. | ||
For example, the English noun "face" is translated into | For example, the English noun "face" is translated into Da as ''daosó'', lit. "the front of head". The same English word can be used as a verb, meaning, depending on context, "to meet face-to-face" or "to confront". | ||
The | The Da verb ''soi'', however, means "to advance" and any verb ending with ''soi'' is expected to have a related meaning. Therefore, the English "to face" cannot be expressed by just using ''daosó'' as a verb. Indeed, one has to say ''soittí'' (lit. "come to the front") or ''sousiattí'' (lit. "come to see the face") or a similar verb. | ||
===Composite Words=== | ===Composite Words=== | ||
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Cha composite word is a little phrase fused together into a word. The individual parts of a composite word relate to each other using the same morphemes as those used to link words in a sentence. | Cha composite word is a little phrase fused together into a word. The individual parts of a composite word relate to each other using the same morphemes as those used to link words in a sentence. | ||
Examples start with very simple words: ''te suno'' "time of light" --> ''sunoté'' "day, daytime"; ''se | Examples start with very simple words: ''te suno'' "time of light" --> ''sunoté'' "day, daytime"; ''se puni'' "hard plant" --> ''punsé'' "tree"; ''mel nuni'' "young woman" --> ''nunmel'' "girl"; ''han mí'' "moving vessel" --> ''mihan'' "car" and so forth. | ||
Here we need to stress a couple of very important points that are essential for understanding how composite words work in | Here we need to stress a couple of very important points that are essential for understanding how composite words work in Da. | ||
1. '''A composite word is not "equal" to the meaning of the phrase that was used to build it.''' ''Mel | 1. '''A composite word is not "equal" to the meaning of the phrase that was used to build it.''' ''Mel nuni'' means just that, a young woman; it does not mean "girl", while ''nunmel'' means "girl" but not "a young woman". '''Fusing a phrase into a composite word gives it additional idiomatic meaning.''' You can often guess what that meaning is, and thus deduce the meaning of the word; but, when in doubt, one should turn to a dictionary. | ||
The same goes about word creation: one cannot expect to throw a bunch of words together and hope to create a word that another | The same goes about word creation: one cannot expect to throw a bunch of words together and hope to create a word that another Da speaker will understand. | ||
In short, knowing etymology of composite words helps one memorize them and helps to understand a new word one has never heard before. But that does not mean one can skip the dictionary altogether. | In short, knowing etymology of composite words helps one memorize them and helps to understand a new word one has never heard before. But that does not mean one can skip the dictionary altogether. | ||
2. '''Composite words in | 2. '''Composite words in Da are not just a bunch of roots thrown together.''' The infixes and endings needed to link those roots together in a phrase are retained in the composite word, making its meaning much more clear. | ||
For example, the Cha word for "learn", '' | For example, the Cha word for "learn", ''sáttí'', is comprised of two root-words, ''sá'' "know" and ''tí'' "come, become". However, you don't simply put these two together and let everyone guess the relationship of the two (come knowing? come for knowledge?). Instead, you create a phrase, ''tí sát'' "come to know" and only then turn it into a composite word, ''sáttí''. | ||
On the other hand, the word for "buy" is composed of two roots, ''kasa'' "pay" and ''há'' "take". The relationship between those if different: you take things because you have paid for them. Therefore, the phrase that is used to describe this is ''há | On the other hand, the word for "buy" is composed of two roots, ''kasa'' "pay" and ''há'' "take". The relationship between those if different: you take things because you have paid for them. Therefore, the phrase that is used to describe this is ''há kasas'', and the word for "buy" is ''kasashá''. | ||
To have another example illustrating the importance of links between roots in a composite word, let us consider words '' | To have another example illustrating the importance of links between roots in a composite word, let us consider words ''derittí'' and ''dernaittí''. The first is composed from the phrase ''tí derit'', "become lower" and means "diminish". The second, however, has its root in the phrase ''tí nait deri'', "come down", and means "to descend". | ||
There are two easy rules describing how composite words are constructed in Cha: | There are two easy rules describing how composite words are constructed in Cha: | ||
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1. The word order is reversed. While in Cha the main word is usually the first, with adjectives following the nouns, objects and adverbs following the verbs etc, in the composite word the main root is always the last part. | 1. The word order is reversed. While in Cha the main word is usually the first, with adjectives following the nouns, objects and adverbs following the verbs etc, in the composite word the main root is always the last part. | ||
2. Adjectives, verbs and adverbs lose their endings | 2. Adjectives, verbs and adverbs lose their endings ''-i'' when they become a part of a composite word (supines do not lose the final '-i'!). Those endings, however, are most of the time easily reconstructed (adjectives modify nouns, while adverbs modify verbs). | ||
Let us give you a couple more examples: | Let us give you a couple more examples: | ||
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''tira saraotú'' "drive strangers away"<br /> --> ''saraotutira'' "guard" | ''tira saraotú'' "drive strangers away"<br /> --> ''saraotutira'' "guard" | ||
''hon saraotutira'' "guard animal"<br /> --> '' | ''hon saraotutira'' "guard animal"<br /> --> ''saraotutirahon'' "a dog" | ||
| | | | ||
''han | ''han mí'' "moving vessel"<br /> --> ''mihan'' "car" | ||
'' | ''mi koix'' "move through the height of air"<br /> --> ''koixmí'' "fly" | ||
''mihan | ''mihan koixmí'' "flying car"<br /> --> ''koixmihan'' "airplane" | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Negation=== | ===Negation=== | ||
The | The Da word for "no" is ''em''. When it is used with a verb, adjective or noun, it usually loses the initial 'e' and merges with the following word: ''ria'' "want" --> ''m'ria'' "don't want", ''riao'' "needed, necessary" --> ''m'riao'' "unnecessary, extra" etc. The exception to this rule are words beginning with an 'l', 'm' or 'n'; with them, the initial 'e' is retained: ''Du emmissi karnait tunotunix pankoteo!'' "I have not been there for a hundred years!". | ||
Double negation is possible for emphasis: ''Ku | Double negation is possible for emphasis: ''Ku sissa paltou?'' "Have you seen anything?" -- ''Du m'sissa m'tou!'' "I saw nothing at all!" | ||
Along with '' | Along with ''em'', Cha also has a mechanism of forming antonyms, which consists of alternating the last root consonant. To get an antonym, ''-n'' alternates with ''-l'' and ''-r'' alternates with no consonant. For example: | ||
''lua'' "love" <--> ''lura'' "hate" | ''lua'' "love" <--> ''lura'' "hate" | ||
'' | ''de'' "top" <--> ''der'' "bottom" | ||
''kela'' "wrong / break" <--> ''kena'' "right / fix" | ''keli/kela'' "wrong / break" <--> ''keni/kena'' "right / fix" | ||
''on'' "many, plenty" <--> ''ol'' "few, little" | ''on'' "many, plenty" <--> ''ol'' "few, little" | ||
and so forth. Of course, negatives and antonyms have very different semantics: ''lura'' "hate" is not quite the same as '' | and so forth. Of course, negatives and antonyms have very different semantics: ''lura'' "hate" is not quite the same as ''emlua'' "not love". | ||
===Plural and Numbers=== | ===Plural and Numbers=== | ||
When a Cha speaker wants to say "two chairs", "three tables" and so on, she uses an expression similar to English "a pair of chairs": '' | When a Cha speaker wants to say "two chairs", "three tables" and so on, she uses an expression similar to English "a pair of chairs": ''xu soruraolono'', ''sam maolono'' (lit. "pair of chairs", "trio of tables"). The numeral is grammatically a noun ("pair", "trio", "dozen") and is followed by Genitive. | ||
Note that when used as adjectives the numerals become ordinal numbers: ''soruraolono | Note that when used as adjectives the numerals become ordinal numbers: ''soruraolono xua'' "the second chair". | ||
Often, especially with number two and with paired body parts, the number indicator is merged with the main word: '' | Often, especially with number two and with paired body parts, the number indicator is merged with the main word: ''siaotenoxú'' (eyes, lit. "pair of eyes"), ''haoxú'' (hands, lit. "pair of hands") etc. | ||
"Plurality", or "multiple" is translated into Cha with the use of word ''on''. So if "a person" is ''tu'', then "many persons" is ''on tuo'' (lit. "plurality of persons"). If we merge this expression into a single word, ''tuón'', we get "people". Note that the two "o"s have become one "o" with an accent. | "Plurality", or "multiple" is translated into Cha with the use of word ''on''. So if "a person" is ''tu'', then "many persons" is ''on tuo'' (lit. "plurality of persons"). If we merge this expression into a single word, ''tuón'', we get "people". Note that the two "o"s have become one "o" with an accent. | ||
Using the same method (adding ''-ón'') one can form plural of most any noun. Note however that the plural form will be used when it is not otherwise clear from context that a | Using the same method (adding ''-ón'') one can form plural of most any noun. Note however that the plural form will be used when it is not otherwise clear from context that a plurality of objects or persons is being referred to. In particular, the plural with ''-ón ''is never used with numbers or words like "some" or "several"; e.g. ''tu pana'' "all people" (NOT <strike>''tuón pana''</strike>) | ||
===Translating Pronouns=== | ===Translating Pronouns=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|'''I''' | |'''I''' | ||
|'' | |''du'' | ||
|'' | |''duón, duoxú, duotuón'', | ||
|- | |- | ||
|'''II''' | |'''II''' | ||
|''ku'' | |''ku'' | ||
|''kuón, | |''kuón, kuoxú, kuotuón'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|'''III''' | |'''III''' | ||
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As you can see, Cha speakers use words "man", "woman", "person" and "thing" as 3-rd person pronouns. It is more frequent however to see words ''karmen'', ''karmel'' ("''that'' man", "''that'' woman") and so forth. The use of ''kar-'' and ''ka-'' depends on where the referred persons or objects are. | As you can see, Cha speakers use words "man", "woman", "person" and "thing" as 3-rd person pronouns. It is more frequent however to see words ''karmen'', ''karmel'' ("''that'' man", "''that'' woman") and so forth. The use of ''kar-'' and ''ka-'' depends on where the referred persons or objects are. | ||
The 1-st and 2-nd person plural pronouns have full forms that losely correspond to phrases like "my people" and "your people"; however, short forms '' | The 1-st and 2-nd person plural pronouns have full forms that losely correspond to phrases like "my people" and "your people"; however, short forms ''duón'' and ''kuón'' are most frequently used. Instead of the plural with ''-ón'', one often can hear ''duoxú,'' ''kuoxú'' and ''tuoxú'' (lit. "the pair of us", "the pair of you" or "pair of them"). | ||
Putting personal pronouns into Genitive produces possessive pronouns: '' | Putting personal pronouns into Genitive produces possessive pronouns: ''duo'' (mine, lit. "of me"), ''meno'' (his) etc. When one needs to underscore possession, the verb ''á'' (have) can be fused in, e.g. ''duáo'' (mine, that is belonging to me). | ||
====Demonstrative, Interrogative and Negative Pronouns==== | ====Demonstrative, Interrogative and Negative Pronouns==== | ||
Demonstrative, interrogative, negative (and no on) pronouns are usually expressed by putting words like ''ka'' (this), ''kar'' (that), ''ho'' (what? which?), '' | Demonstrative, interrogative, negative (and no on) pronouns are usually expressed by putting words like ''ka'' (this), ''kar'' (that), ''ho'' (what? which?), ''em'' (no, none), ''pan'' (all), ''pal'' (some) into different cases, or fusing them with words like ''te'' (time), ''na'' (place), ''tu'' (person), ''to'' (thing) etc. For example: | ||
''Hotú'' "who?", '' | ''Hotú'' "who?", ''hotei'' "when?", ''honai'' "where?", ''honais'' "where from?", ''honait'' "where to?", ''hoteis'' "since when?", ''hoi'' "how?", ''hois'' "why?", ''hoit'' "what for?" | ||
''Kató'' "this", '' | ''Kató'' "this", ''katei'' "now", ''kanai'' "here", ''kanais'' "from here", ''kanait'' "(to) here", ''kateis'' "since now", ''kai'' "this way" etc. | ||
''Kartó'' "that", ''karté'' then, and so on. | ''Kartó'' "that", ''karté'' then, and so on. | ||
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Here are some usage examples: | Here are some usage examples: | ||
''Hoi ku | ''Hoi ku passa karu?'' How did you do that? | ||
'' | ''Hotei ku nassi karnai?'' When have you been there? | ||
'' | ''Hoi ku nassi?" Where have you been? | ||
'' | ''Honais ku tí?'' Where do you come from? | ||
'' | ''Hois ku mí karnait?'' Why do you go there? | ||
'' | ''Hoit ku mixi karnait?'' What for do you keep going there? | ||
===Degrees of Adjectives and Adverbs=== | ===Degrees of Adjectives and Adverbs=== | ||
To compare two qualities, | To compare two qualities, Da speakers use words ''doi'' (more), ''dori'' (less) and ''sia'' (looking at, comparing with). ''Doi'' and ''dori'' are usually fused with the adjectives, forming a comparative form: | ||
''Hu | ''Hu kai dodei. Hu kai dodei sia hú kari.'' This house is taller. This house it taller than that house. | ||
''Nunmel | ''Nunmel kai dorloís sia nunmelu kari.'' This girl is less beautiful than that girl. | ||
'' | ''Du romí doi sia kú.'' I run faster than you. | ||
To form the superlative degree, use the word '' | To form the superlative degree, use the word ''panusia'' (overall; lit. "more compared with all"). E.g. ''Ku dolosí panusia! Ku dolosí sia melu pani pankoro!'' "You are the most beautiful! You are more beautiful than all women in the world!". | ||
The word ''sani'' (similarly) is used to compare two qualities that are perceived to be equal. Again, ''sani'' can be fused with the adjective: | The word ''sani'' (similarly) is used to compare two qualities that are perceived to be equal. Again, ''sani'' can be fused with the adjective: | ||
'' | ''Du morittalsa konkanuluhonu sandoi sani dekoru.'' I killed a bear as big as a mountian. | ||
=Advanced Examples= | =Advanced Examples= | ||
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[[Category:Languages]] | [[Category:Languages]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Languages]] | ||
[[Category:Cha]] | [[Category:Cha]] | ||