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Dundulanyä: Difference between revisions
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With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}. | With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}. | ||
===Saṃdhi=== | ===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')=== | ||
Saṃdhi in Dundulanyä is usually internal saṃdhi only. | Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is usually internal saṃdhi only. | ||
(to be expanded, only an unordered list for now) | (to be expanded, only an unordered list for now) | ||
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:: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'') | :: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'') | ||
There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä | There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä). | ||
The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology. | The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology. | ||
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====Bound forms==== | ====Bound forms==== | ||
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used | Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions. | ||
In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms: | In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms: | ||
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* ''imut naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''imut'' being the bound form of ''imute'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''. | * ''imut naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''imut'' being the bound form of ''imute'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''. | ||
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child". | * ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child". | ||
* '' | * ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''. | ||
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''. | * ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''. | ||
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Many Dundulanyä particles are grammaticalized usages of other words, some of them no longer being used in their original meaning in contemporary use (e.g. varve).--> | Many Dundulanyä particles are grammaticalized usages of other words, some of them no longer being used in their original meaning in contemporary use (e.g. varve).--> | ||
====Clitic particles==== | |||
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs.<br/>Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to. | |||
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]". | |||
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya". | |||
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]". | |||
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya". | |||
====Non-clitic conjunctions==== | |||
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black." | |||
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''lud idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead." | |||
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals." | |||
====Postpositions==== | |||
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat". | * '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat". | ||
===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')=== | ===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')=== | ||