@@ Line 97: / Line 97: @@
 With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.
-===Saṃdhi===
+===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')===
-Saṃdhi in Dundulanyä is usually internal saṃdhi only.
+Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only.
-(to be expanded, only an unordered list for now)
+====Internal saṃdhi====
+Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s).
-* plosive + '''ḫ''' → geminated and aspirated plosive, e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"; cf. the change happening with the corresponding soft consonant '''h''', where the preceding plosive gains aspiration, but is not geminated.
+The most basic rules are:
+* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''.
+* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one.
+** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials.
+In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops.
+-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-;<br/>
+-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-;<br/>
+-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-;<br/>
+-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-;<br/>
+-'''cp'''- → -'''śp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''hp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''ṣṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''śk'''-;<br/>
+-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.
+All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-,  -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged.
+Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences:
+-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-;<br/>
+-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-;<br/>
+-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-;<br/>
+-'''jb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-;<br/>
+-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.
+All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged.
+'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-.
+'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-.
+Sibilants trigger various different changes:
+* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ''';
+* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration;
+* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
+* Coronal stops followed  by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
+* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.
+In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-).
+====Doubling saṃdhi====
+In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results:
+* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-''';
+** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
+* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
+** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
+* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.
+====Epenthetic vowels====
+Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant:
+* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials;
+* '''i''' is inserted after palatals;
+* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants.
+Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''.
 ====Saṃdhi in consonant stems====
@@ Line 108: / Line 162: @@
 All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä:
-* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamis'';
+* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē'';
 * ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
 Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.
@@ Line 123: / Line 177: @@
 Nominal examples:
-* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'')  ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": <small>ABS</small> ''bhaṭuṣa'', <small>ERG</small> ''bhaṭuṣis'', <small>DAT</small> ''abḍhoṣak'', <small>LOC</small> ''abḍhoṣā'', <small>LOC.PL</small> ''abḍhauṣän''
+* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'')  ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": <small>ABS</small> ''bhaṭuṣa'', <small>ERG</small> ''bhaṭuṣē'', <small>DAT</small> ''abḍhoṣak'', <small>LOC</small> ''abḍhoṣā'', <small>LOC.PL</small> ''abḍhauṣän''
-* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": <small>ABS</small> ''dehuṣa'', <small>ERG</small> ''dehuṣis'', <small>DAT</small> ''dihoṣak'', <small>LOC</small> ''dihoṣā'', <small>LOC.PL</small> ''dihauṣän''
+* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": <small>ABS</small> ''dehuṣa'', <small>ERG</small> ''dehuṣē'', <small>DAT</small> ''dihoṣak'', <small>LOC</small> ''dihoṣā'', <small>LOC.PL</small> ''dihauṣän''
-* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": <small>ABS</small> ''hāṅka'', <small>ERG</small> ''hāṅkis'', <small>DAT</small> ''iṣfaṅkak'', <small>LOC</small> ''iṣfaṅkā'', <small>LOC.PL</small> ''iṣfāṅkän''
+* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": <small>ABS</small> ''hāṅka'', <small>ERG</small> ''hāṅkē'', <small>DAT</small> ''iṣfaṅkak'', <small>LOC</small> ''iṣfaṅkā'', <small>LOC.PL</small> ''iṣfāṅkän''
 A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut.
@@ Line 132: / Line 186: @@
 {| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
 |-
-! Class<br/>''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''rählälu dhopta, hälinaike dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade<br/>''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade<br/>''būcūya'' !! Higher grade<br/>''udhyukṣṇise''
+! Class<br/>''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''rählälu dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade<br/>''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade<br/>''būcūya'' !! Higher grade<br/>''udhyukṣṇise''
 |-
 ! 0
@@ Line 183: / Line 237: @@
 :: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
-There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilaɂe'' (a Dundulanyä).
+There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä).
 The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology.
@@ Line 203: / Line 257: @@
 ====Bound forms====
-Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the predicate of a copular verb; when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.
+Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.
 In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:
@@ Line 209: / Line 263: @@
 * ''imut naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''imut'' being the bound form of ''imute'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.
 * ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
-* ''tätebu ū līv'' "my home is a flat", where ''līv'', bound form of ''līve'' "apartment", is part of a copular structure.
+* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
-* ''līv yudaya'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
 * ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''.
@@ Line 232: / Line 285: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| śūc || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
+| śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 247: / Line 300: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭyäh
+| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| śuṭiś || śvaṭṇīka
+| śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 270: / Line 323: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| helkiḫis || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
+| helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 285: / Line 338: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫeyäh
+| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| hilkeḫīś || hilkaiḫenīka
+| hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 308: / Line 361: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| koruṣis || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
+| koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 323: / Line 376: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣayäh
+| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| kuroṣaiś || kurauṣenīka
+| kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 349: / Line 402: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| mārjis || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
+| mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 364: / Line 417: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjājñäh<sup>1</sup>
+| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| marjayiś || mṛjainīka
+| marjayāl || mṛjainīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 386: / Line 439: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| p̃aiṣus || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
+| p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 401: / Line 454: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣauyäh
+| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| p̃eṣaviś || p̃iṣaunīka
+| p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 423: / Line 476: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| khaikṛs || khekaryat || khikāram
+| khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
-| khaikṛt<br/>khaikaṭ<sup>2</sup> || khekartha || khikāraih
+| khaikṛt<br/>khaikaṭ<sup>1</sup> || khekartha || khikāraih
 |-
 ! <small>Dative</small>
-| khekark || khekarma || khikārmi
+| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
 |-
 ! <small>Ablative</small>
@@ Line 438: / Line 491: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāryäh
+| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| khekariś || khikārṇīka
+| khekarāl || khikārṇīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
-| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikār
+| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh<sup>2</sup>
 |}
 {{col-break}}
 {{col-end}}
-# Morphemically ''mṛj-ai-yäh'', with regular saṃdhi.
 # The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used.
+# The underlying form is ''-ār''.
 {{col-begin}}
@@ Line 467: / Line 520: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| imutis || imutīyat || imutām
+| imutē || imutīyat || imutām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 482: / Line 535: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | imutī || imuteyäh
+| rowspan=2 | imutī || imutoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| imutīś || imutenīka
+| imutāl || imutenīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 504: / Line 557: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| nādēs || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
+| nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 519: / Line 572: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādaɂäh
+| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| nādīś || nādānīka
+| nādāl || nādānīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 542: / Line 595: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| buneyes || buneyīyat || buneyām
+| buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 557: / Line 610: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyayäh
+| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| buneyaiś || buneyanīka
+| buneyāl || buneyanīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 586: / Line 639: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| ilūvis || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
+| ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 601: / Line 654: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūviyäh
+| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| ilūvyīś || ilūvinīka
+| ilūvīl || ilūvinīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 623: / Line 676: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| kulārus || kulārūyat || kulārvām
+| kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 638: / Line 691: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulāruväh
+| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| kulārvīś || kulārunīka
+| kulārūl || kulārunīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 660: / Line 713: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| emes || emeyat || emayām
+| emayē || emeyat || emayām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 675: / Line 728: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayäh
+| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| emayīś || emenīka
+| emēl || emenīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 697: / Line 750: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| śośäs || śośäyat || śośām
+| śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 712: / Line 765: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| śośäyäh
+| śośäṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| śośäś || śośänīka
+| śośäl || śośänīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 727: / Line 780: @@
 The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").
-''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea" or ''lanai'' "island".
+''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
 {{col-begin}}
 {{col-break}}
@@ Line 744: / Line 797: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| śuthṛs || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
+| śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 759: / Line 812: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthräh
+| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| śuthrīś || śuthṝnīka
+| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
@@ Line 781: / Line 834: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Ergative</small>
-| lanais || lanājñat || lanāyām
+| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām
 |-
 ! <small>Accusative</small>
@@ Line 796: / Line 849: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Essive</small>
-| rowspan=2 | lanai || lanājñäh
+| rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu
 |-
 ! <small>Instrumental</small>
-| lanaiś || lanainīka
+| lanail || lanainīka
 |-
 ! <small>Bound form</small>
-| lanai || lanaiv || lanai
+| lanaiv || lanai
 |}
 {{col-break}}
@@ Line 819: / Line 872: @@
 # nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
 #: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhaitrāvāṣri'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
-<!-- # a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
+# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
-#: -->
+#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
 # some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
 #: <!-- ''sūmeri'' ..., -->''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
@@ Line 829: / Line 882: @@
 : ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
 Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
-: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky")
+: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").
+Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').
 ====Irregular vocatives====
@@ Line 852: / Line 907: @@
 * Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
 ** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
-* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai mä dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
+* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
-* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''nanāt miśeḫi meśūh'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
+* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
 * ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
 Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".
@@ Line 961: / Line 1,016: @@
 Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape").
-The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them".<br/>Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-'';  the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".
+The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one".<br/>Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-'';  the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".
 ====Inverse deixis and ablative motion====
@@ Line 990: / Line 1,045: @@
 Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.
-As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''ni-'', perfect ''ini-'', frequentative ''enisā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''mäly-'' (0) "to give" has present/past ''mäly-'', perfect ''amäly-'', frequentative ''amälisā-''.
+As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''ni-'', perfect ''ini-'', frequentative ''enisā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.
 There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
 * the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
-* the formant of the so-called '''future intentional''' is ''-āḍ-'', added to the perfect stem.
+* the formant of the so-called '''future intentional''' is ''-āḍ-'', added to the perfect stem;
+* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.
+The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.
 The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
@@ Line 1,003: / Line 1,061: @@
 * Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
 * Future intentional: future intentional "stem" + perfect terminations
+* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
+* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
 The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
 * Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
@@ Line 1,068: / Line 1,128: @@
 |}
-The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''meśa'' "3SG is seen" and ''meśū'' "3SG sees").
+The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").
 Note that the perfect 2PL termination ''-iśa'' becomes ''-iṣa'' when immediately after the future intentional marker ''-āḍ-'', assimilating to the preceding retroflex, therefore resulting in ''-āḍ-iṣa''.
@@ Line 1,145: / Line 1,205: @@
 : '''''ludda''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
 : '''''nadda''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."  <!-- ''lud'' (copula ''ludda''); second person: ''nad'' (copula ''nadda''), ''ḫod'' (copula ''ḫodda''), ''yad'' (copula ''yadda''), ''āt'' (copula ''ātha''). -->
+The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
+: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
+: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."
 ===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
@@ Line 1,272: / Line 1,336: @@
 Many Dundulanyä particles are grammaticalized usages of other words, some of them no longer being used in their original meaning in contemporary use (e.g. varve).-->
+====Clitic particles====
+The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs.<br/>Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to.
+* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]".
+* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya".
+* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]".
+* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya".
+====Non-clitic conjunctions====
+* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
+:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''lud idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead."
+* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals."
+====Postpositions====
 * '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".
-* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
 ===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
@@ Line 1,384: / Line 1,460: @@
 * ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper)
-'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive.
+'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive.<br/>In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''.
 * ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose)
+* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven)
+* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess)
+* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar)
 '''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns.
@@ Line 1,396: / Line 1,475: @@
 * ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm)
 * ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west)
+* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus)
 '''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns.
@@ Line 1,442: / Line 1,522: @@
 * ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
 * ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)
+==Syntax==
+===Verb phrase===
+====Positional-classificatory verbs====
+Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.
+Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
+* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
+* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
+* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
+* People, children, pets and farm animals;
+* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
+* Non-contained liquids;
+* Contained liquids;
+* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
+* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
+* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
+* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.
+According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
+* Stative-existential:
+** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
+** Seated ("to be; to sit");
+** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
+* Verbs of placing:
+** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
+** Seated ("to put, seat");
+** Vertical ("to put, place");
+* Verbs of carrying:
+** in the hands or arms;
+** on the head;
+** on the back;
+** by vehicle;
+* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
+* Verbs of throwing.
+For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.
+Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").
+The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".
+Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".
+The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:
+{| class="redtable lightredbg"
+|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
+|-
+! rowspan=2 | → Action nature<br/>↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
+|-
+! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place<br/>(vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
+|-
+! Spherical/proportionate
+| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' <small>(0)</small> || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' <small>(0)</small> || - || - || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || - || ''√śro-'' <small>(III)</small>
+|-
+! Long, stiff objects
+| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√chās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√dom-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yaṅk-'' <small>(I)</small> || ''√eñj-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' <small>(III)</small>
+|-
+! Ropes<br/>Long, non stiff objects
+| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' <small>(I)</small> || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' <small>(I)</small> || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
+|-
+! People, children<br/>Pets and farm animals
+| ''-√oṭ-'' <small>(III)</small><br/>(-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' <small>(III)</small><br>(-akava) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small><br/>(-edaya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''-√ko-on'' <small>(III)</small><br/>(-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' <small>(II)</small><br/>(-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yaṅk-'' <small>(I)</small> || ''√eñj-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=7 | - || <small>''(√yug-)'' (0) </small>
+|-
+! Masses, generic/uncategorized<br/>Contained, heterogeneous masses<br/>Figurative
+| (amyava) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√kon-'' <small>(III)</small>
+|-
+! Non-contained liquids
+| (emaya) || ''√me-'' <small>(II)</small> || - || - || ''√mañc-'' <small>(0)</small>
+|-
+! Contained liquids
+| (aśoma) || ''√śom-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | -
+|-
+! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
+| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small>
+|-
+! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids<br/>Mixed bundles
+| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√yup-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√śro-'' <small>(III)</small>
+|-
+! Sheets, paper sheets<br/>Slabs, rocks
+| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''ta-√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yug-'' <small>(0)</small>
+|-
+! Large objects that cannot be carried<br/>Wild animals
+| (-edaya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√tvoṣ-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√chās-'' <small>(0)</small> || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || -
+|}
+====Telicity in perception verbs====
+A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.
+In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.
+Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = jñū meśah.
+| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
+| gloss = tree-<small>ABL.SG</small>. see-<small>EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES</small>.
+| translation = I see the tree.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = nenūya chläh.
+| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
+| gloss = voice-<small>ABL.SG=2SG</small>. be_happy-<small>EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES</small>.
+| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
+}}
+Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).
+From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
+* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
+* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
+* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
+* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
+* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
+* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).
 ==Vocabulary==
@@ Line 1,482: / Line 1,677: @@
 Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (26<sub>12</sub>) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each.<br/>
 ''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds.
+==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
+The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
+: ''nad tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
+: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.
+When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''':
+: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it)
+: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it)
+''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
+: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
+: ''viṣam guntai nad inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
+: ''viṣam uguntai nad inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)
+''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
+: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning).
+: ''nadda naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
+: ''prānilau daśa mäliṣya tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
+Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.
+Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
+: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it)
+: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not)
+: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good.
 ===Sensorial and emotional beauty===
@@ Line 1,490: / Line 1,710: @@
 : ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
 The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.
+===Personal names===
+: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''
 ==External history==
@@ Line 1,503: / Line 1,726: @@
 Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.
+==See also==
+* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
+* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]
 ==Notes==

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