@@ Line 147: / Line 147: @@
 ** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
 * -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
+** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
 * -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.
@@ Line 481: / Line 482: @@
 |-
 ! <small>Dative</small>
-| khekark || khekarma || khikārmi
+| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
 |-
 ! <small>Ablative</small>
@@ Line 779: / Line 780: @@
 The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").
-''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea" or ''lanai'' "island".
+''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
 {{col-begin}}
 {{col-break}}
@@ Line 871: / Line 872: @@
 # nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
 #: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhaitrāvāṣri'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
-<!-- # a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
+# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
-#: -->
+#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
 # some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
 #: <!-- ''sūmeri'' ..., -->''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
@@ Line 881: / Line 882: @@
 : ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
 Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
-: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky")
+: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").
+Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').
 ====Irregular vocatives====
@@ Line 904: / Line 907: @@
 * Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
 ** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
-* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai mä dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
+* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
-* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānat miśeḫi meśūh'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
+* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
 * ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
 Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".
@@ Line 1,042: / Line 1,045: @@
 Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.
-As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''ni-'', perfect ''ini-'', frequentative ''enisā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''mäly-'' (0) "to give" has present/past ''mäly-'', perfect ''amäly-'', frequentative ''amälisā-''.
+As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''ni-'', perfect ''ini-'', frequentative ''enisā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.
 There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
 * the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
-* the formant of the so-called '''future intentional''' is ''-āḍ-'', added to the perfect stem.
+* the formant of the so-called '''future intentional''' is ''-āḍ-'', added to the perfect stem;
+* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.
+The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.
 The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
@@ Line 1,055: / Line 1,061: @@
 * Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
 * Future intentional: future intentional "stem" + perfect terminations
+* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
+* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
 The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
 * Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
@@ Line 1,197: / Line 1,205: @@
 : '''''ludda''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
 : '''''nadda''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."  <!-- ''lud'' (copula ''ludda''); second person: ''nad'' (copula ''nadda''), ''ḫod'' (copula ''ḫodda''), ''yad'' (copula ''yadda''), ''āt'' (copula ''ātha''). -->
+The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
+: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
+: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."
 ===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
@@ Line 1,510: / Line 1,522: @@
 * ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
 * ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)
+==Syntax==
+===Verb phrase===
+====Positional-classificatory verbs====
+Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.
+Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
+* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
+* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
+* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
+* People, children, pets and farm animals;
+* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
+* Non-contained liquids;
+* Contained liquids;
+* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
+* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
+* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
+* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.
+According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
+* Stative-existential:
+** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
+** Seated ("to be; to sit");
+** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
+* Verbs of placing:
+** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
+** Seated ("to put, seat");
+** Vertical ("to put, place");
+* Verbs of carrying:
+** in the hands or arms;
+** on the head;
+** on the back;
+** by vehicle;
+* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
+* Verbs of throwing.
+For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.
+Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").
+The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".
+Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".
+The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:
+{| class="redtable lightredbg"
+|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
+|-
+! rowspan=2 | → Action nature<br/>↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
+|-
+! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place<br/>(vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
+|-
+! Spherical/proportionate
+| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' <small>(0)</small> || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' <small>(0)</small> || - || - || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || - || ''√śro-'' <small>(III)</small>
+|-
+! Long, stiff objects
+| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√chās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√dom-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yaṅk-'' <small>(I)</small> || ''√eñj-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' <small>(III)</small>
+|-
+! Ropes<br/>Long, non stiff objects
+| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' <small>(I)</small> || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' <small>(I)</small> || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
+|-
+! People, children<br/>Pets and farm animals
+| ''-√oṭ-'' <small>(III)</small><br/>(-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' <small>(III)</small><br>(-akava) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small><br/>(-edaya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''-√ko-on'' <small>(III)</small><br/>(-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' <small>(II)</small><br/>(-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yaṅk-'' <small>(I)</small> || ''√eñj-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=7 | - || <small>''(√yug-)'' (0) </small>
+|-
+! Masses, generic/uncategorized<br/>Contained, heterogeneous masses<br/>Figurative
+| (amyava) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√kon-'' <small>(III)</small>
+|-
+! Non-contained liquids
+| (emaya) || ''√me-'' <small>(II)</small> || - || - || ''√mañc-'' <small>(0)</small>
+|-
+! Contained liquids
+| (aśoma) || ''√śom-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | -
+|-
+! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
+| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small>
+|-
+! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids<br/>Mixed bundles
+| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√yup-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√śro-'' <small>(III)</small>
+|-
+! Sheets, paper sheets<br/>Slabs, rocks
+| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''ta-√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yug-'' <small>(0)</small>
+|-
+! Large objects that cannot be carried<br/>Wild animals
+| (-edaya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√tvoṣ-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√chās-'' <small>(0)</small> || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || -
+|}
+====Telicity in perception verbs====
+A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.
+In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.
+Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = jñū meśah.
+| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
+| gloss = tree-<small>ABL.SG</small>. see-<small>EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES</small>.
+| translation = I see the tree.
+}}
+{{Gloss
+| phrase = nenūya chläh.
+| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
+| gloss = voice-<small>ABL.SG=2SG</small>. be_happy-<small>EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES</small>.
+| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
+}}
+Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).
+From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
+* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
+* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
+* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
+* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
+* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
+* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).
 ==Vocabulary==
@@ Line 1,569: / Line 1,696: @@
 : ''nadda naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
 : ''prānilau daśa mäliṣya tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
+Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.
 Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
@@ Line 1,582: / Line 1,710: @@
 : ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
 The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.
+===Personal names===
+: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''
 ==External history==
@@ Line 1,595: / Line 1,726: @@
 Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.
+==See also==
+* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
+* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]
 ==Notes==

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