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Dundulanyä: Difference between revisions
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The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Mandabudi language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Mandabudi and Dailishi languages. | The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Mandabudi language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Mandabudi and Dailishi languages. | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')== | ||
Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus. | Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus. | ||
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" | | {| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" | | ||
|+ Vowels - ''camiyāṃsai'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! !! Front !! Central !! Back | ! !! Front !! Central !! Back | ||
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{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" | | {| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" | | ||
|+ Consonants - ''hīmbayāṃsai'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA <br/> ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals | ! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA <br/> ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! <small>Voiced</small> | ! <small>Voiced</small> | ||
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}<sup>3</sup> || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}<sup>3</sup> || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | | | {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}<sup>3</sup> || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}<sup>3</sup> || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɢ}}<sup>4</sup> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=2 | Fricatives | ! colspan=2 | Fricatives | ||
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|} | |} | ||
Table notes: | Table notes: | ||
# '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular | # '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular). | ||
# The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}. | # The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}. | ||
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars. | # {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars. | ||
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}.<br/>In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise. | |||
With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}. | With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}. | ||
===Saṃdhi=== | ===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')=== | ||
Saṃdhi in Dundulanyä is | Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only. | ||
( | ====Internal saṃdhi==== | ||
Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s). | |||
* | The most basic rules are: | ||
* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''. | |||
* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one. | |||
** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials. | |||
==Morphology== | In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops. | ||
-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-;<br/> | |||
-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-;<br/> | |||
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-;<br/> | |||
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-;<br/> | |||
-'''cp'''- → -'''śp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''hp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''ṣṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''śk'''-;<br/> | |||
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-. | |||
All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-, -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged. | |||
Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences: | |||
-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-;<br/> | |||
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-;<br/> | |||
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-;<br/> | |||
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-;<br/> | |||
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-. | |||
All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged. | |||
'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-. | |||
'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-. | |||
Sibilants trigger various different changes: | |||
* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ'''; | |||
* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration; | |||
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel; | |||
* Coronal stops followed by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate; | |||
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''. | |||
In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-). | |||
====Doubling saṃdhi==== | |||
In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results: | |||
* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-'''; | |||
** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-; | |||
* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-'''; | |||
** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-; | |||
* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''. | |||
====Epenthetic vowels==== | |||
Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant: | |||
* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials; | |||
* '''i''' is inserted after palatals; | |||
* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants. | |||
Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''. | |||
====Saṃdhi in consonant stems==== | |||
Consonant stem nouns ending in a sonorant (i.e. m-stem, n-stem and l-stem nouns) undergo special saṃdhi processes if the final ''-a-'' is preceded by a -CR- cluster, where R is any sonorant. | |||
All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä: | |||
* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē''; | |||
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''. | |||
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''. | |||
==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')== | |||
Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles. | Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles. | ||
Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that. | Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that. | ||
===Ablaut=== | ===Ablaut (''camiyāṃsachiṣa'')=== | ||
Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting. | Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations (apophony, in Dundulanyä ''camiyāṃsachiṣa'', literally "vowel stairs") that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting. | ||
Each root has three different grades: the middle grade, citation form of roots, is called ''būcūya'' (from √būc- "flat"); the zero grade (or lower grade) is called ''ślūtya'' (literally "remnant", from √ślo- "to be left"), while the higher grade is called ''udhyukṣṇise'' (literally "grown within"). | |||
Nominal examples: | Nominal examples: | ||
* | * class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'') ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": <small>ABS</small> ''bhaṭuṣa'', <small>ERG</small> ''bhaṭuṣē'', <small>DAT</small> ''abḍhoṣak'', <small>LOC</small> ''abḍhoṣā'', <small>LOC.PL</small> ''abḍhauṣän'' | ||
* | * class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": <small>ABS</small> ''dehuṣa'', <small>ERG</small> ''dehuṣē'', <small>DAT</small> ''dihoṣak'', <small>LOC</small> ''dihoṣā'', <small>LOC.PL</small> ''dihauṣän'' | ||
* | * class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": <small>ABS</small> ''hāṅka'', <small>ERG</small> ''hāṅkē'', <small>DAT</small> ''iṣfaṅkak'', <small>LOC</small> ''iṣfaṅkā'', <small>LOC.PL</small> ''iṣfāṅkän'' | ||
A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut. | A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut. | ||
Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting): | Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting), called ''dhoptai'' (sg. ''dhopta''): | ||
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" | | {| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Class !! Zero grade !! Middle grade !! Higher grade | ! Class<br/>''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''rählälu dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade<br/>''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade<br/>''būcūya'' !! Higher grade<br/>''udhyukṣṇise'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 0 | ! 0 | ||
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|} | |} | ||
The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with | The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä. Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make".</ref>. | ||
Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''. | Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''. | ||
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:: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'') | :: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'') | ||
* Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''): | * Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''): | ||
:: '''Direct''' ('' | :: '''Direct''' (''drādhūṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'') | ||
:: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'') | :: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'') | ||
:: '''Ergative''' | :: '''Ergative''' (''drīyadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'') | ||
:: '''Accusative''' | :: '''Accusative''' (''darūltuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'') | ||
:: '''Dative''' | :: '''Dative''' (''mälindīra dirūṃrūkṣah'') | ||
:: '''Ablative''' | :: '''Ablative''' (''smrāṇuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'') | ||
:: '''Locative''' | :: '''Locative''' (''tadyapadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'') | ||
:: '''Essive''' | :: '''Essive''' (''jalīndīra dirūṃrūkṣah'') | ||
:: '''Instrumental''' | :: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'') | ||
There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä | There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä). | ||
The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology. | The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology. | ||
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* ''-a'' declension | * ''-a'' declension | ||
* Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ''). | * Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ''). | ||
Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular '' | Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular ''lūrabhā'', dative plural ''lūrābhumi''). | ||
'''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones: | '''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones: | ||
| Line 190: | Line 257: | ||
====Bound forms==== | ====Bound forms==== | ||
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used | Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions. | ||
In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms: | In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms: | ||
| Line 196: | Line 263: | ||
* ''imut naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''imut'' being the bound form of ''imute'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''. | * ''imut naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''imut'' being the bound form of ''imute'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''. | ||
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child". | * ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child". | ||
* '' | * ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''. | ||
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''. | * ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 231: | Line 297: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | śuṭā || rowspan=2 | śuṭhe || śvaṭän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || | | rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| Line 257: | Line 323: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 269: | Line 335: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | hilkeḫā || rowspan=2 | helkiḫehe || hilkaiḫän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || | | rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| Line 295: | Line 361: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 307: | Line 373: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | kuroṣā || rowspan=2 | koruṣehe || kurauṣän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || | | rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| Line 336: | Line 402: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 348: | Line 414: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | marjayā || rowspan=2 | marjehe || mṛjāyän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | marjayī || | | rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | marjayāl || mṛjainīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| Line 373: | Line 439: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 385: | Line 451: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | p̃eṣavā || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣohe || p̃iṣāvän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || | | rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| Line 410: | Line 476: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| khaikṛt<br/>khaikaṭ<sup> | | khaikṛt<br/>khaikaṭ<sup>1</sup> || khekartha || khikāraih | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Dative</small> | ! <small>Dative</small> | ||
| | | khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ablative</small> | ! <small>Ablative</small> | ||
| Line 422: | Line 488: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | khekarā || rowspan=2 | khekarhe || khikārän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | khekarī || | | rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | khekarāl || khikārṇīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| khaikṛ || khekaru || | | khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh<sup>2</sup> | ||
|} | |} | ||
{{col-break}} | {{col-break}} | ||
{{col-end}} | {{col-end}} | ||
# The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used. | # The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used. | ||
# The underlying form is ''-ār''. | |||
{{col-begin}} | {{col-begin}} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | imutē || imutīyat || imutām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 466: | Line 532: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | imutā || rowspan=2 | imutehe || imutän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | imutī || | | rowspan=2 | imutī || imutoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | imutāl || imutenīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 503: | Line 569: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | nādā || rowspan=2 | nādēhe || nādän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | nādī || | | rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | nādāl || nādānīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| Line 529: | Line 595: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 541: | Line 607: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | buneyā || rowspan=2 | buneyehe || buneyän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | buneyī || | | rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | buneyāl || buneyanīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| Line 556: | Line 622: | ||
# Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''. | # Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''. | ||
The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems). | The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns<ref>The few e-stem common nouns in general usage include, however, frequently used words such as most notably ''eme'' "star", ''hāreṇe'' "dawn", or ''lilene'' "clan".</ref> (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems). | ||
{{col-begin}} | {{col-begin}} | ||
| Line 573: | Line 639: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 585: | Line 651: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | ilūvyā || rowspan=2 | ilūvihe || ilūvyän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || | | rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | ilūvīl || ilūvinīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| Line 610: | Line 676: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 622: | Line 688: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | kulārvā || rowspan=2 | kulāruhe || kulārvän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || | | rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | kulārūl || kulārunīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| Line 637: | Line 703: | ||
|+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems | |+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | '' | ! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''eme-''<br/>"star" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Direct</small> | ! <small>Direct</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | ''' | | rowspan=2 | '''eme''' || rowspan=2 | emeve || rowspan=2 | emayi | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Vocative</small> | ! <small>Vocative</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | emayē || emeyat || emayām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| | | emet || emetha || emayaih | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Dative</small> | ! <small>Dative</small> | ||
| | | emek || emema || emayumi | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ablative</small> | ! <small>Ablative</small> | ||
| | | emayū || emeṣu || emenī | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | emayā || rowspan=2 | emehe || emayän | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | | | rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | emēl || emenīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| | | eme || emev || emayi | ||
|} | |} | ||
{{col-break}} | {{col-break}} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 693: | Line 759: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ablative</small> | ! <small>Ablative</small> | ||
| śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī | | rowspan=5 | śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| rowspan=2 | śośähe || śośän | |||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| | | śośäṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | śośäl || śośänīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| Line 712: | Line 778: | ||
Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''. | Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''. | ||
The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband"): | The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband"). | ||
''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation). | |||
{{col-begin}} | {{col-begin}} | ||
{{col-break}} | {{col-break}} | ||
| Line 723: | Line 791: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Direct</small> | ! <small>Direct</small> | ||
| '''śuthah''' || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri | | '''śuthah'''<sup>1</sup> || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Vocative</small> | ! <small>Vocative</small> | ||
| śuthāh | | śuthāh<sup>1</sup> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Ergative</small> | ! <small>Ergative</small> | ||
| | | śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Accusative</small> | ! <small>Accusative</small> | ||
| Line 741: | Line 809: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Locative</small> | ! <small>Locative</small> | ||
| | | śuthrā || rowspan=2 | śuthṝhe || śuthrän | ||
|- | |||
! <small>Essive</small> | |||
| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu | |||
|- | |||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | |||
| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka | |||
|- | |||
! <small>Bound form</small> | |||
| śuthah<sup>1</sup> || śuthru || śuthāh<sup>1</sup> | |||
|} | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" | | |||
|+''-ai'' stems | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lanai''<br/>"island" | |||
|- | |||
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural | |||
|- | |||
! <small>Direct</small> | |||
| rowspan=2 | '''lanai''' || rowspan=2 | lanaive || rowspan=2 | lanai | |||
|- | |||
! <small>Vocative</small> | |||
|- | |||
! <small>Ergative</small> | |||
| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām | |||
|- | |||
! <small>Accusative</small> | |||
| lanait || lanaitha || lanāyaih | |||
|- | |||
! <small>Dative</small> | |||
| lanaik || lanaima || lanāyumi | |||
|- | |||
! <small>Ablative</small> | |||
| lanāyū || lanaiṣu || lanainī | |||
|- | |||
! <small>Locative</small> | |||
| lanāyā || rowspan=2 | lanaihe || lanāyän | |||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Essive</small> | ! <small>Essive</small> | ||
| rowspan= | | rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Instrumental</small> | ! <small>Instrumental</small> | ||
| | | lanail || lanainīka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>Bound form</small> | ! <small>Bound form</small> | ||
| | | lanaiv || lanai | ||
|} | |} | ||
{{col-break}} | {{col-break}} | ||
{{col-end}} | {{col-end}} | ||
Table notes: | |||
# The underlying form of the final consonant of the direct and vocative singular, as well as singular and plural bound forms, is ''-r''. | |||
====Singularia and pluralia tantum==== | ====Singularia and pluralia tantum==== | ||
| Line 765: | Line 872: | ||
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays: | # nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays: | ||
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhaitrāvāṣri'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin) | #: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhaitrāvāṣri'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin) | ||
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders: | |||
#: | #: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza" | ||
# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms: | # some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms: | ||
#: <!-- ''sūmeri'' ..., -->''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics" | #: <!-- ''sūmeri'' ..., -->''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics" | ||
| Line 775: | Line 882: | ||
: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum) | : ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum) | ||
Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples: | Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples: | ||
: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky") | : ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky"). | ||
Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū''). | |||
====Irregular vocatives==== | ====Irregular vocatives==== | ||
| Line 785: | Line 894: | ||
* ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu'' | * ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu'' | ||
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu'' | * ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu'' | ||
====Irregular nouns==== | |||
A few Dundulanyä nouns are irregular (outside of the few vocatives in the section above). Most of them are suppletive in the plural, or have irregular stems: | |||
* As mentioned above, a few irregular nouns end in long vowels; the most common ones are ''amamū'' "mother", ''atabū'' and ''batū'' (both "father"). These behave mostly as ''-u'' stem nouns and have, due to regular saṃdhi, ''ūv-'' before vocalic endings, except for having an irregular direct, vocative and bound form plural in ''-ūvi'' (''amamūvi, atabūvi, batūvi''). | |||
<!-- * placeholder for other irregular long vowel nouns --> | |||
* ''huline'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūni'' (regularly declined); its general combining stem is ''hulun-'' (although in some cases ''hulin-'' is also found)<ref>Cf. for the irregular vowel quality also the numeral ''emibe'' "one", which has e-stem and a-stem forms throughout its declension and an u-stem combining form.</ref>. | |||
* ''svo'', the most common honorific, is most commonly used as an indeclinable adpositive title before the noun it refers to; however, it may used as a standalone noun, in which case it behaves as an ''-o'' stem noun except before vocalic endings, where it has the stem ''svom-'' instead of the expected *svav-; the irregular behaviour is due to it being a shortening of the original honorific ''svomardam'', already found in both full and shortened forms in Classical Dundulanyä. | |||
* ''irāḍe'' "animal (including humans)" is a consonant stem noun in the singular and dual, but declines as an ''-a'' stem noun in the plural, i.e. direct pl. ''irāḍai''. | |||
====Use of the plural==== | ====Use of the plural==== | ||
| Line 790: | Line 907: | ||
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little). | * Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little). | ||
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses". | ** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses". | ||
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the | * When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room". | ||
* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. '' | * When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands". | ||
* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum. | * ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum. | ||
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group". | Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group". | ||
===Pronouns (''śidrāñjiḫi'')=== | |||
====Personal pronouns==== | |||
====Possessive suffixes==== | |||
Each person has its respective possessive suffix, which are clitics mostly used to denote possession on nouns. | |||
{| class="redtable lightredbg" | |||
|+ Personal markers | |||
|- | |||
! <small>1SG</small> !! <small>2SG</small> !!<small>3SG</small> !! <small>1DU</small> !! <small>2DU</small> !! <small>3DU</small> !! <small>1PL</small> !! <small>2PL</small> !! <small>3PL</small> | |||
|- | |||
| -bu || -ya || -ɂe || -bin || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān | |||
|} | |||
Possessive suffixes are added to the head of the noun phrase (Dundulanyä does not have Suffixaufnahme), after any case ending but before any conjunctional clitic: | |||
: ''ñältah; ñältah'''bu''''' "sister; my sister" | |||
: ''nādaśrūṣe'''ya''' cända itta nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''' śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black." | |||
: ''āyome ga tūfa'''bu''' tūfa'''ya'''ś?'' "Is that my ball or your ball?" | |||
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite") | |||
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively): | |||
: ''imut nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike" | |||
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs" | |||
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä") | |||
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own: | |||
: ''imut'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike" | |||
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs" | |||
====Correlatives==== | |||
Dundulanyä has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in twelve categories (attributive, thing, person, [person or thing] owner of, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity). | |||
{| class="redtable lightredbg" | |||
|- | |||
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern. | |||
|- | |||
! Attributive | |||
| ''hine''<br/>this || ''hunu''<br/>that (near you) || ''āna''<br/>that (over there) || ''bena?''<br/>which? || ''idu''<br/>no || ''sora''<br/>some || ''grāṇa''<br/>any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva''<br/>every(thing) || ''viṣam''<br/>another, other || ''idūṣam''<br/>no other | |||
|- | |||
! Thing | |||
| ''hiyome''<br/>this one || ''huyome''<br/>that one (near you) || ''āyome''<br/>that one (over there) || ''beyome?''<br/>what?; which one? || ''idume''<br/>nothing || ''sorame''<br/>something || ''grāṇame''<br/>anything || ''viṣāme''<br/>something else || ''idūṣāme''<br/>nothing else | |||
|- | |||
! Person | |||
| ''hikana''<br/>this one || ''hukana''<br/>that one (near you) || ''ākana''<br/>that one (over there) || ''bekana?''<br/>who? || ''idona''<br/>no one || ''sorakna''<br/>someone || ''grākṇa''<br/>anyone || ''yāyukana''<br/>everyone || ''viṣkaṇa''<br/>someone else || ''idūṣkaṇa''<br/>no one else | |||
|- | |||
! Owner of<sup>1</sup> | |||
| ''hirūm''<br/>this one's || ''hurūm''<br/>that one's (near you) || ''ārūm''<br/>that one's (over there) || ''berūm?''<br/>whose? || ''idurūm''<br/>no one's || ''sohrūm''<br/>someone's || ''grāṃrūm''<br/>anyone's || ''yāyurūm''<br/>everyone's || ''viṣrūm''<br/>someone else's || ''idūṣrūm''<br/>no one else's | |||
|- | |||
! Time | |||
| ''hivet''<br/>now || ''huvet''<br/>then || ''āvet''<br/>then (remote) || ''bevet?''<br/>when? || ''iduvet''<br/>never || ''sorvet''<br/>sometime, somewhen || ''grāmvet''<br/>anytime, whenever || ''yāyuvet''<br/>always, everytime || ''viṣvet''<br/>sometime else || ''idūṣvet''<br/>never else | |||
|- | |||
! Place | |||
| ''hiyo''<br/>here || ''huyo''<br/>there || ''āyo''<br/>over there || ''beyo?''<br/>where? || ''iduyo''<br/>nowhere || ''sorayo''<br/>somewhere || ''grāṇyo''<br/>anywhere || ''yaivyo''<br/>everywhere || ''viṣayo''<br/>elsewhere || ''idūṣayo''<br/>nowhere else | |||
|- | |||
! Destination | |||
| ''hiyāk''<br/>hither || ''huyāk''<br/>thither || ''āyāk''<br/> thither (remote) || ''beyāk?''<br/>whither? || ''idvāk''<br/>nowhither || ''sorayāk''<br/>somewhither || ''grāṇyāk''<br/>anywhither || ''yaivyāk''<br/>everywhither || ''viṣayāk''<br/>elsewhither || ''idūṣayāk''<br/>nowhither else | |||
|- | |||
! Source | |||
| ''hiyau''<br/>hence || ''huyau''<br/>thence || ''āyau''<br/> thence (remote) || ''beyau?''<br/>whence? || ''idvau''<br/>nowhence || ''sorayau''<br/>somewhence || ''grāṇyau''<br/>anywhence || ''yaivyau''<br/>everywhence || ''viṣayau''<br/>elsewhence || ''idūṣayau''<br/>nowhence else | |||
|- | |||
! Manner | |||
| ''hilīce''<br/>thus, hereby || ''hulīce''<br/>thereby || ''ālīce''<br/>thereby; that other way || ''belīce?''<br/>how? || ''idulīce''<br/>no way || ''soralīce''<br/>somehow || ''grāṃlīce''<br/>anyhow || ''yāyulīce''<br/>everyway || ''viṣlīce''<br/>otherwise || ''idūṣlīce''<br/>no other way | |||
|- | |||
! Reason | |||
| ''himena''<br/>herefore || ''humena''<br/>therefore || ''āmena''<br/>therefore; for that other reason || ''bemena?''<br/>why? || ''idumena''<br/>for no reason || ''soramena''<br/>somewhy || ''grāmena''<br/>whyever, for any reason || ''yāyumena''<br/>for every reason || ''viṣmena''<br/>for another reason || ''idūṣmena''<br/>for no other reason | |||
|- | |||
! Quality | |||
| ''hismā''<br/>this kind || ''husmā''<br/>that kind || ''āsmā''<br/>that other kind || ''besmā?''<br/>which kind? || ''idusmā''<br/>no kind || ''sorasmā''<br/>some kind || ''grāṃsmā''<br/>any kind || ''yāyusmā''<br/>every kind || ''viṣasmā''<br/>another kind || ''idūṣasmā''<br/>no other kind | |||
|- | |||
! Quantity | |||
| ''hiqna''<br/>this much || ''huqna''<br/>that much || ''āqna''<br/>that much (remote) || ''beqna?''<br/>how much? || ''iduqna''<br/>none || ''soraqna''<br/>some of it || ''grāqna''<br/>any much || ''yāyuqna''<br/>all of it || ''viṣaqna''<br/>another quantity || ''idūṣaqna''<br/>no other quantity | |||
|} | |||
# The "owner of" correlatives are bound forms that mark possession, e.g. ''hirūm naviṣyaɂe'' "this [person]'s book", ''idurūm naviṣyaɂe'' "no one's book", ''berūm naviṣyaɂe?'' "whose book is this?" (lit. "who is the owner of [the] book?"). As such, they are always used together with a third-person (generally singular) possessive suffix. | |||
<small>THING</small>, <small>PERSON</small>, <small>QUALITY</small> and <small>QUANTITY</small> correlatives decline for case; the proximal, medial and distal members of the <small>THING</small> (''hiyome, huyome, āyome'') and <small>PERSON</small> series (''hikana, hukana, ākana'') also decline for number.<br/> | |||
The <small>QUALITY</small> and <small>QUANTITY</small> correlatives are generally only declined when used together with the bound form of another noun (e.g. ''m̃uk huqna'' "that much milk", ''nṛta idūṣasmā'' "no other kind of dream"). | |||
Note that Dundulanyä does not have wh-fronting: ''hine täte māmūtrību lilīsa'' "in this house lives my maternal aunt" → ''hine täte bekanī lilīsa?'' "who lives in this house?" | |||
Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number: | |||
: ''idumive, idoneve'' "neither"; | |||
: ''grāṇamive, grākṇeve'' "either"; | |||
: ''yaiveve, yāyukaneve'' "both"; | |||
: ''viṣāmive, viṣkaṇeve'' "the other one". | |||
===Verbs (''darūmmai'')=== | ===Verbs (''darūmmai'')=== | ||
Dundulanyä | The verb (''darūmma'', pl. ''darūmmai'') is the most inflected part of speech in Dundulanyä. Forms are quite complex and generally formed in an agglutinative manner - even if there are fusional elements for what concerns tense, aspect, and subject agreement. | ||
The language has an [[w:Symmetrical voice|Austronesian-type]] morphosyntactic alignment, and the argument the verb agrees with is controlled by a particular morpheme inside the verb complex. Due to the complex structure, a single verb form can often correspond to a more complex English sentence, as e.g. ''kujadumbhyaimyūsaɂed'' (I've been told that the two of you are bringing [it] again (on foot) from outside at my/our place for him/her), a form of the root ''dombh-'' (to bring on foot, with the hands), morphemically ''kuḍ-sa-dumbh-ya-emi-ū-sa-ɂe=d''. | |||
The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes: | The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes: | ||
{| class="redtable lightredbg" | {| class="redtable lightredbg" | ||
|+ Dundulanyä verb structure | |+ Dundulanyä verb structure | ||
|- | |- | ||
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-''<br/>inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions | ! -3 !! -2 !! -1 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 | ||
|- | |||
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-''<br/>inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | Irrealis marker<br/>(''-g-'') || rowspan=2 | Causative or applicative marker || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions | |||
|- | |- | ||
|| Incorporated nominal root | || Incorporated nominal root | ||
| Line 818: | Line 1,016: | ||
Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape"). | Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape"). | ||
The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as '' | The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one".<br/>Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-''; the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much". | ||
====Inverse deixis and ablative motion==== | ====Inverse deixis and ablative motion==== | ||
While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix, the cislocative can. | While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix, the cislocative can. | ||
The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. '' | The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)". | ||
The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuṇḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuṇḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside". | The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuṇḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuṇḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside". | ||
The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", '' | The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix: | ||
* ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside"; | * ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside"; | ||
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside"; | * ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside"; | ||
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack". | * ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack]". | ||
====Stem and TAM formation==== | ====Stem and TAM formation==== | ||
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** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā'''; | ** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā'''; | ||
** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply. | ** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply. | ||
* The '''intensive''' (or ''energetic'') stem, which does not form tenses but a mood, is formed with a higher grade augment and a middle grade root vowel. | |||
As an example, the stems of '' | Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless. | ||
As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''nī-'', perfect ''inī-'', frequentative ''enīsā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''. | |||
There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM: | There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM: | ||
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem ( | * the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>); | ||
* ... | * the formant of the so-called '''future intentional''' is ''-āḍ-'', added to the perfect stem; | ||
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem. | |||
The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses. | |||
The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below): | The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below): | ||
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* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations | * Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations | ||
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations | * Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations | ||
* ... | * Future intentional: future intentional "stem" + perfect terminations | ||
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations | |||
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations | |||
The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use): | |||
* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations | |||
* Perfective intensive: intensive stem + perfect terminations | |||
The '''imperative''' is generally considered apart from the other stems, as it is only used in second person singular and plural and first person plural forms: its stem is the bare stem but with the higher grade vowel (i.e. ''maiś-'' for the root ''meś-''), with the present terminations for the two plural forms but endingless for the singular. | |||
The '''subjunctive''' does not have its own stem, but is formed as a sort of reverse intensive: it has specific endings which are used together with the zero-grade stem (for the imperfective subjunctive) and with the perfect stem (for the perfective subjunctive). | |||
====''Junyai''==== | ====''Junyai''==== | ||
The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are | The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are four ''junyai'': desiderative, necessitative, potential and permissive, formed as follows, through reduplication (with different ablaut grades in the stem and in the reduplication) and suffixes: | ||
* Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s''; | * Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s''; | ||
* Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū''; | * Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū''; | ||
* Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā''; | * Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā''; | ||
* Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd''; | * Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd''; | ||
* Intensive: reduplication with lengthened vowel + zero-grade root + ''-ī''. | <!-- * Intensive: reduplication with lengthened vowel + zero-grade root + ''-ī''. --> | ||
Examples with various roots: | Examples with various roots: | ||
* ''meś-'' (II) "to see": <small>DES</small> mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; <small>NEC</small> me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; <small>POT</small> mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; <small>PERM</small> mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''; <small>INT</small> mī-miś-ī- → ''mīmiśī-''. | * ''meś-'' (II) "to see": <small>DES</small> mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; <small>NEC</small> me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; <small>POT</small> mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; <small>PERM</small> mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''<!--; <small>INT</small> mī-miś-ī- → ''mīmiśī-''-->. | ||
* ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": <small>DES</small> ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); <small>NEC</small> śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; <small>POT</small> ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); <small>PERM</small> śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''; <small>INT</small> śā-śn-ī- → ''śāśñī-''. | * ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": <small>DES</small> ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); <small>NEC</small> śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; <small>POT</small> ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); <small>PERM</small> śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''<!--; <small>INT</small> śā-śn-ī- → ''śāśñī-''-->. | ||
==== | ====Causative, applicative and trigger (voice) markers==== | ||
There are | There are six possible trigger (voice) markers: | ||
* '''-∅-''' patient trigger; | * '''-∅-''' patient trigger; | ||
* '''-ū-''' | * '''-ū-''' agent trigger; | ||
* '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger; | * '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger; | ||
** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice; | ** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice; | ||
* '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger; | * '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger; | ||
* '''-īs-''' locative trigger; | * '''-īs-''' locative trigger; | ||
* '''-bai-''' reason trigger. | * '''-bai-''' reason trigger. | ||
The causative ('''-on-''' or '''-n-''') and applicative ('''-im-''' or '''-m-''') markers fill the slot preceding the trigger marker, but unlike the latter those markers are not mandatory. | |||
====Evidential markers==== | ====Evidential markers==== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Present | ! Present | ||
| -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | - | | -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | -evu || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḫo || rowspan=2 | -āhai | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Frequentative | ! Frequentative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Perfect | ! Perfect | ||
| -am || - | | -am || -ī || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iśa || -a | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Past | ! Past | ||
| - | | -n || -īt || -(n)ī || -rap || -ro || -ra || -nān || -thā || -lī | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Subjunctive | ! Subjunctive | ||
| || || || || || || || | | -ā || -ās || -ai || -oba || -osa || -ai || -ove || -aut || -ai | ||
|} | |||
The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds"). | |||
Note that the perfect 2PL termination ''-iśa'' becomes ''-iṣa'' when immediately after the future intentional marker ''-āḍ-'', assimilating to the preceding retroflex, therefore resulting in ''-āḍ-iṣa''. | |||
Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant: | |||
{| class="redtable lightredbg" | |||
|+ Dative terminations | |||
|- | |||
! <small>1SG</small> !! <small>2SG</small> !!<small>3SG</small> !! <small>1DU</small> !! <small>2DU</small> !! <small>3DU</small> !! <small>1PL</small> !! <small>2PL</small> !! <small>3PL</small> | |||
|- | |||
| -mu || -ya || -ɂe || -min || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān | |||
|} | |||
Example basic conjugation showing stems and endings (but, for simplicity, zero morphemes wherever possible): | |||
{| "role="presentation" class="redtable lightredbg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" | |||
|+ Example conjugation of the root √śro- (III) "to throw, propel, launch" | |||
|- | |||
! colspan=2 | !! <small>1SG</small> !! <small>2SG</small> !!<small>3SG</small> !! <small>1DU</small> !! <small>2DU</small> !! <small>3DU</small> !! <small>1PL</small> !! <small>2PL</small> !! <small>3PL</small> | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=6 | Indicative !! Present | |||
| śroh || śravi || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai | |||
|- | |||
! Frequentative | |||
| ośrūsau || ośrūsai || ośrūsai || ośrūsāba || ośrūsāsa || ośrūsāḍa || ośrūsaivu || ośrūsāḫo || ośrūsāhai | |||
|- | |||
! Perfect | |||
| uśrūm || uśrūvī || uśrū || uśrūra || uśrūri || uśrū || uśrūvima || uśrūviśa || uśrū | |||
|- | |||
! Past | |||
| śrūn || śrūvīt || śrūnī || śrūrap || śrūro || śrūra || śrūnān || śrūthā || śrūlī | |||
|- | |||
! Future | |||
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyes || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya | |||
|- | |||
! Future intentional | |||
| uśrūvāḍam || uśrūvāḍes || uśrūvāḍa || uśrūvāḍara || uśrūvāḍari || uśrūvāḍa || uśrūvāḍima || uśrūvāḍiṣa || uśrūvāḍa | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective | |||
| śrūvā || śrūvās || śrūvai || śrūvoba || śrūvosa || śrūvai || śrūvove || śrūvaut || śrūvai | |||
|- | |||
! Perfective | |||
| uśrūvā || uśrūvās || uśrūvai || uśrūvoba || uśrūvosa || uśrūvai || uśrūvove || uśrūvaut || uśrūvai | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=2 | Intensive !! Imperfective | |||
| auśroh || auśravi || auśro || auśroba || auśrosa || auśroḍa || auśravevu || auśroḫo || auśravāhai | |||
|- | |||
! Perfective | |||
| auśrom || auśraves || auśrava || auśrora || auśrori || auśrava || auśravima || auśraviśa || auśrava | |||
|- | |||
! colspan=2 | Imperative | |||
| - || śrau || - || - || - || - || śrāvevu || śrauḫo || - | |||
|} | |} | ||
The | ====Copula==== | ||
The Dundulanyä copula is '''ga'''; however, it is not a verb, but an invariable particle which links two nouns: | |||
: ''hine saṃhāram '''ga''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is Ṣurlāke." | |||
: ''kālomīye '''ga''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is my sister." | |||
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals." | |||
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'': | |||
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a dancer." | |||
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a dancer." | |||
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead: | |||
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a dancer." | |||
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases: | |||
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa" | |||
: ''mīhuṅga '''ga''' maita'' "Mīhuṅga river" | |||
: ''śaṃḫe '''ga''' hufāne '''ga''' śidrañjiḫe.'' "The word 'śaṃḫe' is a pronoun." (first ''ga'' adpositive; second ''ga'' copula) | |||
The negative copula is simply '''idu''' (not), with the same usage and the same replacement verb: | |||
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke." | |||
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister." | |||
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a dancer." | |||
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a dancer." | |||
The singular first- and second-person pronouns have synthetic copular forms: | |||
: '''''ludda''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker." | |||
: '''''nadda''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person." <!-- ''lud'' (copula ''ludda''); second person: ''nad'' (copula ''nadda''), ''ḫod'' (copula ''ḫodda''), ''yad'' (copula ''yadda''), ''āt'' (copula ''ātha''). --> | |||
The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence: | |||
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good." | |||
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important." | |||
===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')=== | ===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')=== | ||
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Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline. | Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline. | ||
All numeral roots in general usage are native, with the exception of zero, which is a learned borrowing from Kumãwawỹ ''ryrõ'' "nothing". | |||
{| class="redtable lightredbg" | {| class="redtable lightredbg" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 0 | ! 0 | ||
| 0 || '''''' || | | 0 || '''raron''' || <small>''(raronesi)''</small> || rowspan=2 | — || <small>''(raroṅkoma)''</small> || <small>''(b̃āraron)''</small> || — | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1 | ! 1 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 2 | ! 2 | ||
| 2 || '''rirä'''|| | | 2 || '''rirä'''|| hälinaika || rirätām || riräkoma || b̃ārirä <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>riräśila || hälinaikyāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3 | ! 3 | ||
| 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || | | 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || b̃ākiṅka <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>kiṅkośila || kiṅkesyāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 4 | ! 4 | ||
| 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || | | 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || b̃ānälte <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>nältauśila || nältaisyāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 5 | ! 5 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 6 | ! 6 | ||
| 6 || ''' | | 6 || '''tuɂla''' || tuɂlesi || tuɂṛtām || tuɂṛkoma || tuɂlośila || tuɂlesyāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 7 | ! 7 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 16 | ! 16 | ||
| 18 || ''' | | 18 || '''mūmaituɂla''' || mūmaituɂlesi || mūmaituɂṛtām || mūmaituɂṛkoma || mūmaituɂlośila || mūmaituɂlesyāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 17 | ! 17 | ||
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: '''40''' <small>(48<sub>10</sub>)</small> nältamūmai | : '''40''' <small>(48<sub>10</sub>)</small> nältamūmai | ||
: '''50''' <small>(60<sub>10</sub>)</small> śulkmūmai | : '''50''' <small>(60<sub>10</sub>)</small> śulkmūmai | ||
: '''60''' <small>(72<sub>10</sub>)</small> | : '''60''' <small>(72<sub>10</sub>)</small> tuɂṛmūmai | ||
: '''70''' <small>(84<sub>10</sub>)</small> chīcämūmai | : '''70''' <small>(84<sub>10</sub>)</small> chīcämūmai | ||
: '''80''' <small>(96<sub>10</sub>)</small> mbulmūmai | : '''80''' <small>(96<sub>10</sub>)</small> mbulmūmai | ||
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: '''Ɛ0''' <small>(132<sub>10</sub>)</small> ṣūṇḍmūmai | : '''Ɛ0''' <small>(132<sub>10</sub>)</small> ṣūṇḍmūmai | ||
: and '''100''' <small>(144<sub>10</sub>)</small> trāṣoḍa. | : and '''100''' <small>(144<sub>10</sub>)</small> trāṣoḍa. | ||
13<sub>12</sub> originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of '' | 13<sub>12</sub> originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of ''hälinaika''. | ||
Numbers from 100<sub>12</sub> to ƐƐƐ<sub>12</sub> are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on.<br/>The other dozenal hundreds are: | Numbers from 100<sub>12</sub> to ƐƐƐ<sub>12</sub> are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on.<br/>The other dozenal hundreds are: | ||
| Line 1,021: | Line 1,317: | ||
: '''400''' <small>(576<sub>10</sub>)</small> nältitrāṣoḍa | : '''400''' <small>(576<sub>10</sub>)</small> nältitrāṣoḍa | ||
: '''500''' <small>(720<sub>10</sub>)</small> śulkatrāṣoḍa | : '''500''' <small>(720<sub>10</sub>)</small> śulkatrāṣoḍa | ||
: '''600''' <small>(864<sub>10</sub>)</small> | : '''600''' <small>(864<sub>10</sub>)</small> tuɂlatrāṣoḍa | ||
: '''700''' <small>(1008<sub>10</sub>)</small> chīcätrāṣoḍa | : '''700''' <small>(1008<sub>10</sub>)</small> chīcätrāṣoḍa | ||
: '''800''' <small>(1152<sub>10</sub>)</small> mbultrāṣoḍa | : '''800''' <small>(1152<sub>10</sub>)</small> mbultrāṣoḍa | ||
| Line 1,033: | Line 1,329: | ||
The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (12<sup>9</sup>) <small>(5.159.780.352<sub>10</sub>)</small> is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (12<sup>11</sup>) <small>(743.008.370.688<sub>10</sub>)</small> a ''lallatūśvāna''. <!-- The words ''khorādi'' (12<sup>7</sup>, i.e. synonym of lallaraice), ''yaṣmūn'' (12<sup>11</sup>, i.e. lallatūśvāna), ''iriakas'' (12<sup>13</sup>), ''mairāṇa'' or ''lalleriakas'' (12<sup>15</sup>), ''nirāvah'' (12<sup>17</sup>), and ''sṝva'' or ''lallanirāvah'' (12<sup>19</sup>) were introduced in Classical-era texts, but are almost never used today. However, they form the base for the scientific measurement system's prefixes. --> | The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (12<sup>9</sup>) <small>(5.159.780.352<sub>10</sub>)</small> is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (12<sup>11</sup>) <small>(743.008.370.688<sub>10</sub>)</small> a ''lallatūśvāna''. <!-- The words ''khorādi'' (12<sup>7</sup>, i.e. synonym of lallaraice), ''yaṣmūn'' (12<sup>11</sup>, i.e. lallatūśvāna), ''iriakas'' (12<sup>13</sup>), ''mairāṇa'' or ''lalleriakas'' (12<sup>15</sup>), ''nirāvah'' (12<sup>17</sup>), and ''sṝva'' or ''lallanirāvah'' (12<sup>19</sup>) were introduced in Classical-era texts, but are almost never used today. However, they form the base for the scientific measurement system's prefixes. --> | ||
===Particles (''riṇūmyobai'')=== | |||
Traditional Dundulanyä grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''riṇūmyoba'', pl. ''riṇūmyobai'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections. | |||
<!--However, these three are recognized as subsets of particles - here translated as "conjunctive particles" (natemālāhai remīn), "accompanying particles", i.e. postpositions (ūtimāhai remīn), and "exclamatory particles" (pigdilanah nali remīn). | |||
Many Dundulanyä particles are grammaticalized usages of other words, some of them no longer being used in their original meaning in contemporary use (e.g. varve).--> | |||
====Clitic particles==== | |||
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs.<br/>Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to. | |||
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]". | |||
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya". | |||
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]". | |||
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya". | |||
====Non-clitic conjunctions==== | |||
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black." | |||
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''lud idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead." | |||
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals." | |||
====Postpositions==== | |||
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat". | |||
===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')=== | |||
====Noun-forming morphemes==== | |||
There are four morphemes that are used to form general derivatives from verbal roots: '''-a''', '''-vu''', '''-ib-e''' and '''-uḍu'''. The first two are generally unproductive nowadays (even though a terminal ''-a'' is often added to the end of loanwords, it is not considered to be this morpheme), while the latter two are still somewhat used in new coinings. All four morphemes are used with the zero-grade (''ślūtya'') root. | |||
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing) | |||
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūva'' (hurry) (with epenthetic ''-v-'' due to regular saṃdhi) | |||
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgibe'' (fear) | |||
* ''mord-'' (to promise) → ''murdibe'' (promise) | |||
* ''ḫamf-'' (to express oneself) → ''ḫamfa'' (language) | |||
* ''nyäɂ-'' (to laugh) → ''nyäɂvu'' (laugh) (also ''nyäɂa'') | |||
* ''dhā-'' (to let, permit) → ''dhauḍu'' (permission) | |||
* ''ṣrop-'' (to honor, celebrate) → ''ṣropuḍu'' (praise) | |||
* ''tamb-'' (to kiss) → ''tambuḍu'' (kiss) | |||
* ''lav-'' (to go, walk) → ''lavibe'' (walk) | |||
'''-(i)ḫ-e''' (first ablauting declension) sometimes marks a result of the action denoted by a verb root, but commonly has unpredictable meanings (even agents, particularly body parts). | |||
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lelḫe'' (life) | |||
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun) | |||
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart) | |||
* ''bhel-'' (to eat) → ''bheliḫe'' (meal) | |||
'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root. | |||
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣarta'' (government, rule; ''in compounds:'' -cracy) | |||
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śodda'' (knowledge; ''in compounds:'' -logy) | |||
* ''ni-sākh-'' (to create, produce) → ''nisāktha'' (production, artifact; the works of an artist) | |||
'''-uṣ-a''' (second ablauting declension) forms meaning related to qualities, but sometimes also something used for a determinate action. | |||
* ''bhaṭ-'' (to expand, swell, bloat) → ''bhaṭuṣa'' (expansion, swelling) | |||
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kṛsuṣa'' (wait) | |||
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśuṣa'' (visibility) | |||
'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy''; '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv''; '''-ṝna''' with a preceding ''ṛ''), with a middle-grade root, is the most common suffix denoting qualities. | |||
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśña'' (sight) | |||
* ''ne-'' (to say, tell, speak) → ''nena'' (voice) | |||
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocña'' (cleanliness) | |||
* ''dhomy-'' (to hope) → ''dhomiyāna'' (hope) | |||
* ''prā-nart-'' (to imagine, foresee) → ''prānartra'' (imagination; clairvoyance) | |||
'''-ūmma''', with middle grade ablaut, is a rarer suffix with a meaning overlapping to ''-uṣ-a''. | |||
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnūmma'' (work [a relationship between employer and employee]) | |||
* ''bhe-'' (to cure, care for) → ''bhayūmma'' (caring) | |||
* ''dar-'' (to do) → ''darūmma'' (action; verb) | |||
* ''rav-'' (to open) → ''ravūmma'' (width, breadth) | |||
'''-anah''', with middle grade ablaut, denotes an act or process, or its tangible manifestation (see third example). | |||
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocanah'' (cleaning, the act of cleaning) | |||
* ''khāh-'' (to buy) → ''khāhanah'' (shopping) | |||
* ''meś-on-'' (to see + causative marker) → ''meśonnah'' (exhibition) | |||
'''-āmita''', with higher grade ablaut (''udhyukṣṇise'') when used with verb roots, also forms quality, states, but often with more abstract meanings - cf. English ''-hood'', ''-ship'', ''-ism'' - or denoting a state in scientific terms. Unlike most previous suffixes, it is most commonly (but not exclusively) used to derive nouns from other nouns, instead of verb roots or stems. | |||
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältāmita'' "siblinghood; sisterhood, brotherhood" | |||
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍvāmita'' (friendship) (bookish variant ''lilāḍūmita'') | |||
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lailāmita'' (the state of being alive) | |||
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''gīrḍāmita'' (humidity) | |||
'''-āvam''' (m-stem non-ablauting), with zero grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental. | |||
* ''dhoj-'' (to keep together; assign, allocate) → ''dhujāvam'' (number, numeral) | |||
* ''khor-'' (to sing) → ''khurāvam'' (choir) | |||
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śudāvam'' (explanation) | |||
'''-ūlt-e''', or '''-lt-e''' with lengthening of a stem-final vowel (more rarely simply '''-lt-e'''), with middle grade ablaut, forms nouns that generally denote tools, something used in doing an action; containers; more rarely places - cf. Latin ''-brum''. | |||
* ''nādah'' (leg) → ''nādālte'' (knee-length sock) | |||
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫūlte'' (drum) | |||
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocūlte'' (detergent; cleaning product) | |||
* ''hamvy-'' (to cradle) → ''hamvyūlte'' (cradle) | |||
* ''näly-'' (to think) (class V) → ''nälilte'' (brain) | |||
'''-ṅ-ka''' (second ablauting declension) also denotes tools, or instruments that do a particular action - not always synonymous with the preceding one. | |||
* ''haf-'' (to insert) → ''hāṅka'' (socket) | |||
* ''ni-de-'' (to stand on, to stand over) → ''nideṅka'' (roof) | |||
* ''ni-ko-'' (to sit on) → ''nikoṅka'' (chair) | |||
'''-ura''' (but ''-y-ura'' → '''-ira'''), attached to a verb's perfect stem, denotes something that has undergone a certain action (i.e. the equivalent of a past participle). | |||
* ''pad-miś-'' (to see beyond, to see further) → ''padimiśura'' (view, overlook) | |||
* ''cor-'' (to save, keep for the future) → ''ucururai'' (savings) (pl. tantum) | |||
* ''lūkr-'' (to fold) → ''ulūkrura'' (wardrobe [the elements composing it, and colloquially, by extension, the piece of furniture]) | |||
'''-s-e''', with a zero grade root, is a synonym of '''-ura''', but generally used in a compound where the first element denotes the agent, or with a verb prefix.<br/>Note that ablauting roots ending in ''-ar-'', no matter the class, lengthen the vowel to ''-ār-'' and do not add the ''-s-''. | |||
* ''nādah'' (leg) + ''śro-'' (to propel, launch) → ''nādaśrūṣe'' (bicycle, bike) | |||
* ''pūnan'' (worker) + ''ṣar-'' (to rule) → ''pūnaṃṣāre'' (worker cooperative) | |||
* ''pad-'' (forth, beyond) + ''gṇyau-'' (to give birth; to be born) → ''padagṇyausi'' (sons and daughters) (pl. tantum) | |||
* ''udhi-'' (within) + ''ukṣṇy-'' (to grow) → ''udhyukṣṇise'' (higher grade ablaut, ''vṛddhi'') | |||
'''-ḫana''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns meaning "that ought to be X-ed", i.e. a future passive participle. | |||
* ''uc-'' (to believe) → ''vacchana'' (miracle) | |||
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaḫana'' (video) | |||
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śuddhana'' (rule) | |||
'''-tya''' ('''-dya''' after voiced stops; ''-ś-tya'' → '''-cya''') is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something. | |||
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūtya'' (run) | |||
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''micya'' (a look) | |||
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgdya'' (fright, scare) | |||
* ''ślo-'' (to be left) → ''ślūtya'' (remain, residue; zero grade ablaut) | |||
* ''daśa'' (rain) → ''dacya'' (raindrop) | |||
'''-aC(-e)''', where C is the last consonant of the root, is one of multiple suffixes forming (mostly human, but not exclusively) agent nouns: | |||
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnan'' (worker) | |||
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaśe'' (guard, warden) | |||
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale) | |||
'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns: | |||
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer) | |||
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer) | |||
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer) | |||
'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots. | |||
* ''bog-'' (to steal) → ''bunūgoba'' (thief) | |||
* ''deh-'' (to use) → ''dinūhoba'' (user) | |||
* ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper) | |||
'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive.<br/>In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''. | |||
* ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose) | |||
* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven) | |||
* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess) | |||
* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar) | |||
'''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns. | |||
* ''lila'' (person) → ''lileṣa'' (people) | |||
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältaɂeṣa'' "siblings; brothers and sisters" | |||
* ''laire'' (sky; air) → ''laireṣa'' (galaxy) | |||
'''-apa''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns referring to places and locations: | |||
* ''ij-'' (to teach) → ''yajapa'' (school) | |||
* ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm) | |||
* ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west) | |||
* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus) | |||
'''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns. | |||
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pupūnde'' (workplace) | |||
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣaṣrīde'' (headquarters; department; <small>(hist.)</small> seat of power; throne; capital city; sometimes used as a toponym) | |||
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kakrasīde'' (waiting room) | |||
'''-ādhu''' means "having X". | |||
* ''maiha'' (daughter) → ''maihādhūve'' (parents) (dual/plural only) | |||
* ''b̃īla'' (terrain, soil) → ''b̃īlādhu'' (field) | |||
'''-(m)ūya''' denotes something which has X as a distinctive trait; for some words, especially denominal formations, it can mean "made of X". | |||
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍūya'' (tongue) | |||
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūmūya'' (deadline) | |||
* ''būc-'' (to be flat) → ''būcūya'' (middle grade ablaut, ''guṇa'') | |||
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirūya'' (stone tool) | |||
'''-ic-e''' (1st ablauting declension) forms nouns, generally from verbal roots, with the meaning of "result, remain, product or byproduct of an action": | |||
* ''gird-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍice'' (the mark left by something wet) | |||
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśice'' (<small>liter., bookish:</small> knowledge) | |||
* ''goṃs-'' (to cut) → ''goṃsice'' (piece, part) | |||
'''-äśah''' ('''-ɂäśah''' when added to ''-ah'' nouns) denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Eventoa a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>. | |||
* ''māra'' (mango) → ''māräśah'' (mango tree) | |||
* ''dīlla'' (peas) → ''dīlläśah'' (pea plant) | |||
* ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisɂäśah'' (pineapple tree) | |||
'''-īrä''' is a fossilized suffix used to form temporal units. | |||
* ''jūlafe'' (market) → ''jūlafīrä'' (week) | |||
'''-ida''', with higher grade ablaut, is an older diminutive suffix, often now lexicalized and rarely used productively. | |||
* ''īs-ko-'' (to sit hanging) → ''īskāvida'' (swing) | |||
* ''b̃oṭa'' (finger) → ''b̃oṭida'' (little finger, pinky) | |||
'''-ulu''' with higher grade vowel is a suffix that forms demonyms (cf. vṛddhi derivation). In some cases, there are more variants of a same word depending on the strengthened vowel, and the one that is preferred depends on usage (usually the last one, with the exception of ''lausaṃrītulu''). | |||
* ''Lusaṃrīte'' → ''lausaṃrītulu'' (preferred) or ''lusaṃraitulu'' | |||
* ''Jūhma'' → ''jauhmulu'' | |||
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu'' | |||
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu) | |||
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth". | |||
'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes. | |||
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhārmyeke'' (little boy) | |||
* ''ābābi'' (town square) → ''ābābīceni'' (a nice and cozy little town square) (pl. tantum as the unmodified noun) | |||
* ''cūlla'' (car) → ''cūlliccha'' (toy car) | |||
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends) | |||
* ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach) | |||
==Syntax== | |||
===Verb phrase=== | |||
====Positional-classificatory verbs==== | |||
Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled. | |||
Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories: | |||
* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height; | |||
* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff; | |||
* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves); | |||
* People, children, pets and farm animals; dolls and plush toys in the shape of humans or animals; | |||
* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings; | |||
* Non-contained liquids; | |||
* Contained liquids; | |||
* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour; | |||
* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles; | |||
* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks; | |||
* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals. | |||
According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are: | |||
* Stative-existential: | |||
** Horizontal ("to be; to lie"); | |||
** Seated ("to be; to sit"); | |||
** Vertical ("to be; to stand"); | |||
* Verbs of placing: | |||
** Horizontal ("to put, lay"); | |||
** Seated ("to put, seat"); | |||
** Vertical ("to put, place"); | |||
* Verbs of carrying: | |||
** in the hands or arms; | |||
** on the head; | |||
** on the back; | |||
** by vehicle; | |||
* Verbs of pulling, dragging; | |||
* Verbs of throwing. | |||
For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root. | |||
Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash"). | |||
The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball". | |||
Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]". | |||
The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes: | |||
{| class="redtable lightredbg" | |||
|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=2 | → Action nature<br/>↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing | |||
|- | |||
! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place<br/>(vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle | |||
|- | |||
! Spherical/proportionate | |||
| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' <small>(0)</small> || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' <small>(0)</small> || - || - || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || - || ''√śro-'' <small>(III)</small> | |||
|- | |||
! Long, stiff objects | |||
| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√chās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√dom-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yaṅk-'' <small>(I)</small> || ''√eñj-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' <small>(III)</small> | |||
|- | |||
! Ropes<br/>Long, non stiff objects | |||
| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' <small>(I)</small> || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' <small>(I)</small> || rowspan=4 | - || - || - | |||
|- | |||
! People, children<br/>Pets and farm animals<br/>Dolls, plush toys | |||
| ''-√oṭ-'' <small>(III)</small><br/>(-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' <small>(III)</small><br>(-akava) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small><br/>(-edaya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''-√ko-on'' <small>(III)</small><br/>(-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' <small>(II)</small><br/>(-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yaṅk-'' <small>(I)</small> || ''√eñj-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0) | |||
|- | |||
! Masses, generic/uncategorized<br/>Contained, heterogeneous masses<br/>Figurative | |||
| (amyava) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√kon-'' <small>(III)</small> | |||
|- | |||
! Non-contained liquids | |||
| (emaya) || ''√me-'' <small>(II)</small> || - || - || ''√mañc-'' <small>(0)</small> | |||
|- | |||
! Contained liquids | |||
| (aśoma) || ''√śom-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | - | |||
|- | |||
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids | |||
| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> | |||
|- | |||
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids<br/>Mixed bundles | |||
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√yup-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√śro-'' <small>(III)</small> | |||
|- | |||
! Sheets, paper sheets<br/>Slabs, rocks | |||
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''ta-√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yug-'' <small>(0)</small> | |||
|- | |||
! Large objects that cannot be carried<br/>Wild animals | |||
| (-edaya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√tvoṣ-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√chās-'' <small>(0)</small> || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || - | |||
|} | |||
====Telicity in perception verbs==== | |||
A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs. | |||
In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described. | |||
Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
| phrase = jñū meśah. | |||
| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h | |||
| gloss = tree-<small>ABL.SG</small>. see-<small>EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES</small>. | |||
| translation = I see the tree. | |||
}} | |||
{{Gloss | |||
| phrase = nenūya chläh. | |||
| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h | |||
| gloss = voice-<small>ABL.SG=2SG</small>. be_happy-<small>EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES</small>. | |||
| translation = I'm happy to hear from you. | |||
}} | |||
Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget). | |||
From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones: | |||
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch); | |||
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach); | |||
* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen); | |||
* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce); | |||
* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand); | |||
* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget). | |||
==Vocabulary== | ==Vocabulary== | ||
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| White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" | | | White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" | | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Time=== | |||
The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (40<sub>12</sub>) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided into eight periods, called TBD, of six ''garaṇai'' each. | |||
Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (26<sub>12</sub>) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each.<br/> | |||
''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds. | |||
==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä=== | |||
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'': | |||
: ''nad tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you. | |||
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am. | |||
When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''': | |||
: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it) | |||
: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it) | |||
''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb): | |||
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea. | |||
: ''viṣam guntai nad inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive) | |||
: ''viṣam uguntai nad inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here) | |||
''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts: | |||
: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning). | |||
: ''nadda naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...") | |||
: ''prānilau daśa mäliṣya tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow. | |||
Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''. | |||
Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker: | |||
: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it) | |||
: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not) | |||
: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good. | |||
===Sensorial and emotional beauty=== | |||
There are two Dundulanyä words that translate to "beautiful": ''lītanah'' (√lītan-) and ''ñäheyah'' (√ñähey-). While conceptually similar, they are often not interchangeable: ''ñäheyah'' refers to sensorial beauty, while ''lītanah'' to beauty in an emotional sense. Some examples: | |||
: ''naṅgaḍuk padimiśura ñäheya''. — the view on the lake is beautiful. (note also how ''padimiśura'' (a view) requires dative case on its argument) | |||
: ''lelḫe hiyo lītana''. — life here is beautiful. | |||
: ''huline ñäheya''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. her appearance is beautiful) | |||
: ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities) | |||
The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively. | |||
===Personal names=== | |||
: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]'' | |||
==External history== | ==External history== | ||
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* A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew; | * A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew; | ||
* A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for; | * A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for; | ||
* Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021). | * Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021) - although some of those ideas eventually became the "successor" to Lifashian, that is, [[Elodian]]. | ||
Nevertheless, Dundulanyä for years has mostly been a collection of ideas still not totally parted from Chlouvānem, and it gained steam on its own only in late 2023 (first half of November), two years after its official start. | |||
Dundulanyä is meant to be the first conlang for a sort of reboot of [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]] – [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] – as, much like in Chlouvānem itself, there had come to be quite a few things in and about Calémere that I wasn’t that sure of keeping, but changing them would have meant to change so many things about the conworld that depended on them. Eventoa, as of now (November 14, 2023) is a WIP conworld about which I'm still adding and discarding ideas nearly every time I work on it, so there’s little to be written about it – but it eventually will incorporate a few elements of Calémere. Dundulanyä will play a role in Eventoa vaguely similar to the one Chlouvānem had in Calémere, although unlike earlier conworld reboots I have decided not to trash everything away (hence why I chose a different name for Eventoa), keeping eight years’ worth of documentation about Calémere and five years’ worth about Chlouvānem intact. | |||
: ''See [[Chlouvānem#External_history|Chlouvānem § External history]] and [[Verse:Calémere#External_History|Calémere § External history]] for more.'' | |||
Dundulanyä is | Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil. | ||
==See also== | |||
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] | |||
* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]] | |||
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||