Dundulanyä: Difference between revisions

** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;

* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';

* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.

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! <small>Dative</small>

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! <small>Ablative</small>

The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").

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# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:

#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhaitrāvāṣri'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)

# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:

#: <!-- ''sūmeri'' ..., -->''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"

: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)

Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:

====Irregular vocatives====

* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).

** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".

* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".

* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.

Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.

There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:

* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);

The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):

* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations

* Future intentional: future intentional "stem" + perfect terminations

The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):

* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations

* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;

* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);

* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;

* Non-contained liquids;

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

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! Spherical/proportionate

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! Long, stiff objects

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! Ropes<br/>Long, non stiff objects

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! Masses, generic/uncategorized<br/>Contained, heterogeneous masses<br/>Figurative

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! Non-contained liquids

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! Contained liquids

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! Contained masses of homogeneous solids

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! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids<br/>Mixed bundles

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! Sheets, paper sheets<br/>Slabs, rocks

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! Large objects that cannot be carried<br/>Wild animals

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