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**Shared with Catalan and Portuguese.
**Shared with Catalan and Portuguese.
**E.g. IUVENE(M) > ''joven'' /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan ''jove'', Portuguese ''jovem'' vs. Spanish ''joven'', Asturian ''xoven'', Galician ''xove'', Aragonese ''choven'')
**E.g. IUVENE(M) > ''joven'' /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan ''jove'', Portuguese ''jovem'' vs. Spanish ''joven'', Asturian ''xoven'', Galician ''xove'', Aragonese ''choven'')
*Intervocalic -I-, -DI- become /j/.
*Intervocalic -I-, -DI- usually become /j/.
**Differs from Catalan and (sometimes) Galician/Portuguese.
**Differs from Catalan. However, there are many exceptions to this pattern.
**E.g. MAIORE(M) > ''mayor'' /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian ''mayor'', Galician/Portuguese ''maior'' vs Catalan ''major'').
**E.g. MAIORE(M) > ''mayor'' /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian ''mayor'', Galician/Portuguese ''maior'' vs Catalan ''major'').
:::HODIE > ''wey'' /wej/ "today" (Spanish ''hoy'', Asturian, Aragonese ''güe'', Catalan ''vui'' vs Portuguese ''hoje'', Galician ''hoxe'').
:::HODIE > ''wey'' /wej/ "today" (Spanish ''hoy'', Asturian, Aragonese ''güe'', Catalan ''avui'' vs Portuguese ''hoje'', Galician ''hoxe'').
:::FUGĪRE > ''fugir'' /fuˈʒiɾ/ "to flee" (Catalan, Portuguese ''fugir'', Asturian, Galician ''fuxir'' vs Spanish ''huir'').
*Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/.
*Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/.
**Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod).
**Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod).
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*Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''.
*Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''.
**Shared (to a limited extent) with Catalan.
**Shared (to a limited extent) with Catalan.
*Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/.
*Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/ (through intermediate stage /ts/).
**Shared with Aragonese.
**Shared with Aragonese.
*-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes.
*-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes.
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===Phonological history===
===Phonological history===
*Final vowel dropping:
*Final vowel dropping:
**''-u'' and ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''ç, d, l, lh, n, nh, r, s, ss, t, z''.
**''-u'' and ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''ç, d, l, lh, n, nh, r, s, t, z''.
**''-e'' but not ''-u'' dropped after post-vocalic ''c(h), t, x, y, nd, nt''.
**''-e'' but not ''-u'' dropped after post-vocalic ''c(h), t, x, y, nd, nt''.
**''-u'' but not ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''w''.
**''-u'' but not ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''w''.
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|}
|}


==Verbs==
===Verbs===
====Tenses and moods====
====Tenses and moods====
Verbs conjugate in the following tenses and moods:
Verbs conjugate in the following tenses and moods:
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***Simple pluperfect (''el plus-que-perfeit simple'')
***Simple pluperfect (''el plus-que-perfeit simple'')
**Compound tenses (''tiempos compueços''):
**Compound tenses (''tiempos compueços''):
***Past perfect (''el passat compueç'')
***Present perfect (''el passat compueç'')
***Compound pluperfect (''el plus-que-perfeit compueç'')
***Compound pluperfect (''el plus-que-perfeit compueç'')
***Future perfect (''el futur compueç'')
***Future perfect (''el futur compueç'')
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|-
|-
! Gerundive
! Gerundive
| -ando || colspan="2"|-iendo²
| -ando || -endo || -indo
|-
|-
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
'''Notes:'''


¹ ''-er'' verbs may form their past participle in ''-ut'' instead of ''-it'' (this is considered archaic). Additionally, many ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs have irregular past participles (which often are also considered archaic).
¹ ''-er'' verbs may form their past participle in ''-ut'' instead of ''-it'' (this is considered archaic). Additionally, many ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs have irregular past participles, which may or may not coexist with regular forms.
<!--
² Becomes ''-endo'' after palatal consonants. Merges with preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-yendo''.-->


² Becomes ''-endo'' after palatal consonants. Merges with preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-yendo''.
====='''Simple tenses (indicative)'''=====
====='''Simple tenses (indicative)'''=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
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|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| -en || -aven || -én || -arán || -areven || -eren
| -en || -aven || -ón || -arán || -areven || -eren
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| -en || -even || -ién || -erán || -ereven || -ieren
| -en || -even || -ión || -erán || -ereven || -ieren
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-er'' verbs)
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-ir'' verbs)
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
|-
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|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| -en || -iven || -ién || -irán || -ireven || -ieren
| -en || -iven || -ión || -irán || -ireven || -ieren
|-
|-
|}
|}
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¹ The final ''-e'' in the 3S present of ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs is dropped after certain consonants.
¹ The final ''-e'' in the 3S present of ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs is dropped after certain consonants.
 
<!--
² When an ending begins in a rising diphthong (''-i-'' + vowel), ''-i-'' is dropped after palatal consonants and merges with a preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-y-''.
² When an ending begins in a rising diphthong (''-i-'' + vowel), ''-i-'' is dropped after palatal consonants and merges with a preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-y-''.-->


====='''Simple tenses (subjunctive)'''=====
====='''Simple tenses (subjunctive)'''=====
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|-
|-
|}
|}
====='''Notes on irregular verbs'''=====
====='''Imperative'''=====
*'''Affirmative:'''
**'''2S:''' Same as 3S present indicative.
**'''2P:''' Same as infinitive, with final ''-r'' replaced with ''-t''.
**'''Other persons:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
*'''Negative:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
====='''Compound tenses'''=====
Compound tenses are formed with the verb ''aver'' "to have" followed by the past participle. They differ from each other according to the tense of the auxiliary verb.
*Non-finite forms:
**Perfect infinitive: ''aver'' + participle
**Perfect participle: participle of ''aver'' + participle
**Perfect gerundive: ''avendo'' + participle
*Indicative:
**Present perfect: present of ''aver'' + participle
**Compound pluperfect: imperfect of ''aver'' + participle
**Future perfect: future of ''aver'' + participle
**Conditional perfect: conditional of ''aver'' + participle
*Subjunctive:
**Perfect subjunctive: present subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
**Pluperfect subjunctive: imperfect subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
**Future perfect subjunctive: future subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle
<!---
====='''Periphrastic tenses'''=====
In addition to the usual simple and compound tenses, there are additional periphrastic tenses formed with auxiliary verbs. These can themselves take any simple or compound tense.-->
 
====='''Passive'''=====
Formed with the appropriate conjugation of ''ser'' with the appropriately declined form of the past participle.
 
It can also be used as a pseudopassive, especially with intransitive verbs. In this case, the participle is always in the neuter.
 
====Irregular verbs====
====='''General notes'''=====
*Stem-changing verbs have predictable sound changes when the stem is stressed. Common varieties include:
*Stem-changing verbs have predictable sound changes when the stem is stressed. Common varieties include:
**''-o-'' > ''-ue-''
**''-o-'' > ''-ue-''
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**''-ch-'' > ''-it-''
**''-ch-'' > ''-it-''
*Many verbs have an irregular 1S present indicative form. When this occurs, this irregular stem is also used to form the present subjunctive. In the case of stem-changing verbs, stem vowel changes still apply.
*Many verbs have an irregular 1S present indicative form. When this occurs, this irregular stem is also used to form the present subjunctive. In the case of stem-changing verbs, stem vowel changes still apply.
*The future may have an irregular stem before ''-r-'' formed by contraction. This happens especially often with ''-er'' verbs. The conditional always has the same stem as the future.
*The future may have an irregular stem before ''-r-'' (usually formed by contraction). This happens especially often with ''-er'' verbs. The conditional always has the same stem as the future.
*The preterite may have an irregular stem, in which case the endings are as below (with a few exceptions):
*The preterite may have an irregular stem, in which case the endings are as below (with a few exceptions):
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
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|-
|-
!1P
!1P
| -ién
| -én
|-
|-
!2P
!2P
| -iez
| -ez
|-
|-
!3P
!3P
| -ién
| -on
|-
|-
|}
|}
:The pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive stems are always formed by removing ''-s'' from the 2S preterite and adding the appropriate endings starting from the consonant.
:The pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive stems are always formed by removing ''-n'' from the 1P preterite indicative and adding the appropriate endings starting from the consonant.
*Regular verbs whose stems end in ''-c-, -g-, -qu-, -gu-, -qü-, -gü-, -ch-'' have spelling changes in order to maintain the same pronunciation in front of front and back vowels, as per the table below.
*Regular verbs whose stems end in ''-c-, -g-, -qu-, -gu-, -qü-, -gü-, -ch-'' have spelling changes in order to maintain the same pronunciation in front of front and back vowels, as per the table below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Phoneme !! Before front vowels !! Before back vowels !! Remarks
! Phoneme !! Before front vowels !! Before back vowels !! Remarks
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|-
|-
| /tʃ/
| /tʃ/
| c || ch ||
| c || ch || Becomes ''-ch'' when word-final.
|-
|-
| /ɡ ~ ɣ/
| /ɡ ~ ɣ/
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| gü || gu ||
| gü || gu ||
|}
|}
:Note that many verbs ending in ''-cer, -cir'' irregularly maintain their spelling in the 1S present indicative with the corresponding pronunciation change.
:Note that many verbs ending in ''-cer, -cir, -ger, -gir'' irregularly maintain their spelling in the 1S present indicative with the corresponding pronunciation change.
<!--
<!--
*There are various verbs ending in ''-uyir/-uwir''. These verbs, as well as ''oyir/owir'' "to hear" have two forms: a mostly regular form in ''-yir'', and a form in ''-wir'' with an irregular present indicative in the 1S and a present subjunctive where the ''-w-'' is replaced with ''-y-''.-->
*There are various verbs ending in ''-uyir/-uwir''. These verbs, as well as ''oyir/owir'' "to hear" have two forms: a mostly regular form in ''-yir'', and a form in ''-wir'' with an irregular present indicative in the 1S and a present subjunctive where the ''-w-'' is replaced with ''-y-''.-->
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====='''The verb ''ser'' "to be"'''=====
====='''The verb ''ser'' "to be"'''=====
The verb ''ser'' "to be" is highly irregular.
The verb ''ser'' "to be" is highly irregular.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Infinitive
| ser
|-
! Participle
| sit/sitos, sita/sites, sito; <br/>
sut/sutos, suta/sutes, suto¹
|-
! Gerundive
| sendo
|-
|}
¹ Archaic
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Simple indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
|-
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|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| son || yeren || fuen || serén || sereven || fueren
| son/sen || yeren || fuen || serén || sereven || fueren
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| soz || yérez || fuez || sérez || serévez || fuérez
| soz/sez || yérez || fuez || serez || serévez || fuérez
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
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|}
|}


====='''Compound tenses'''=====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Compound tenses are formed with the verb ''aver'' "to have" followed by the past participle.
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| siya || fuesse || fuere || —
|-
! 2S
| siyas || fuessas || fueras || sé
|-
! 3S
| siya || fuesse || fuere || siya
|-
! 1P
| siyán || fuessan || fueran || siyán
|-
! 2P
| siyaz || fuéssaz || fuéraz || set
|-
! 3P
| siyan || fuessan || fueran || siyan
|-
|}
 
====='''The verb ''aver'' "to be"'''=====
The verb ''aver'' "to have" is an important irregular verb.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Infinitive
| aver
|-
! Participle
| avit/avitos, avita/avites, avito; <br />
avut/avutos, avuta/avutes, avuto¹
|-
! Gerundive
| avendo
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite² !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect²
|-
! 1S
| e || eva || ovi || avré || avreva || overa
|-
! 2S
| as || eves || oves || avrás || avreves || overes
|-
! 3S
| a || eva || ovo || avrá || avreva || overa
|-
! 1P
| avén || even || ovén || avrén || avreven || overen
|-
! 2P
| avez || évez || ovez || avrez || avrévez || ovérez
|-
! 3P
| an || even || ovon || avrán || avreven || overen
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.² !! Future subj.² !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| aya || ovesse || overe || —
|-
! 2S
| ayas || ovessas || overas || a
|-
! 3S
| aya || ovesse || overe || aya
|-
! 1P
| ayán || ovessan || overan || ayán
|-
! 2P
| ayaz || ovéssaz || ovéraz || avet
|-
! 3P
| ayan || ovessan || overan || ayan
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
¹ Participles in ''-ut-'' are considered archaic.
 
² The irregular preterite is shown here. A regular preterite (''aví, aviés,'' etc.) can alternatively be used, in which case the pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive likewise become regular.
 
====='''The verb ''andar'' "to go"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Infinitive
| andar
|-
! Participle
| andat/andatos, andata/andates, andato
|-
! Gerundive
| andando
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| vo || andava || andé || iré || ireva || andera
|-
! 2S
| vas || andaves || andés || irás || ireves || anderes
|-
! 3S
| va || andava || andó || irá || ireva || andera
|-
! 1P
| andán || andaven || andén || irén || ireven || anderen
|-
! 2P
| andaz || andávez || andez || irez || irévez || andérez
|-
! 3P
| van || andaven || andón || irán || ireven || anderen
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.³ !! Future subj.³ !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| vaya || andesse || andere || —
|-
! 2S
| vayas || andessas || anderas || anda
|-
! 3S
| vaya || andesse || andere || vaya
|-
! 1P
| vayán || andessan || anderan || vayán
|-
! 2P
| vayaz || andéssaz || andéraz || andat
|-
! 3P
| vayan || andessan || anderan || vayan
|-
|}
 
====='''The verb ''facer'' "to do, make"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Infinitive
| facer
|-
! Participle
| feit/feitos, feita/feites, feito
|-
! Gerundive
| facendo
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| faco || feva || fice || faré || fareva || ficera
|-
! 2S
| fas || feves || fices || farás || fareves || ficeres
|-
! 3S
| fa || feva || ficho || fará || fareva || ficera
|-
! 1P
| facén || feven || ficén || farén || fareven || ficeren
|-
! 2P
| facez || févez || ficez || farez || farévez || ficérez
|-
! 3P
| fan || feven || fichon || farán || fareven || ficeren
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| faca || ficesse || ficere || —
|-
! 2S
| facas || ficessas || ficeras || fa
|-
! 3S
| faca || ficesse || ficere || faca
|-
! 1P
| facán || ficessan || ficeran || facán
|-
! 2P
| facaz || ficéssaz || ficéraz || facet
|-
! 3P
| facan || ficessan || ficeran || facan
|-
|}
 
====='''The verb ''dicer'' "to say"'''=====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''ficer'' "to say"
! Infinitive
| dicer
|-
! Participle
| dit/ditos, dita/dites, dito
|-
! Gerundive
| dicendo
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| dico || diva || dixe || diré || direva || dixera
|-
! 2S
| dices || dives || dixes || dirás || direves || dixeres
|-
! 3S
| dich || diva || dixo || dirá || direva || dixera
|-
! 1P
| dicén || diven || dixén || dirén || direven || dixeren
|-
! 2P
| dicez || dívez || dixez || direz || dirévez || dixérez
|-
! 3P
| dicen || diven || dixon || dirán || direven || dixeren
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say"
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff.
|-
! 1S
| dica || dixesse || dixere || —
|-
! 2S
| dicas || dixessas || dixeras || di
|-
! 3S
| dica || dixesse || dixere || dica
|-
! 1P
| dicán || dixessan || dixeran || dicán
|-
! 2P
| dicaz || dixéssaz || dixéraz || dicet
|-
! 3P
| dican || dixessan || dixeran || dican
|-
|}


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
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