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====Vowel Allophony====
====Vowel Allophony====


The situation here is very similar to neighbouring languages such as [[North-East_Antarctican|North-East Antarctican]]. Even though there is no phonemic contrast between front and back vowels, this does not mean that sounds such as [i], [u] and [e] are absent from the language. Front and back vowels occur as allophones of their corresponding central vowels e.g. /ˈhɨ̰mːʲɨ/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈhḭmːʲḭ], and /ˈtʷɨ̤pːasɨ/ - "digestion" is pronounced [ˈtʷṳpːasɨ].
The situation here is very similar to neighbouring languages such as [[North-East_Antarctican|North-East Antarctican]]. Even though there is no phonemic contrast between front and back vowels, this does not mean that sounds such as [i], [u] and [e] are absent from the language. Front and back vowels occur as allophones of their corresponding central vowels.


There is no difference between how consonants influence the preceding vowel and the following vowel. So if /ɨ/ is between /j/ and /w/, in both cases it will be pronounced /y/, no matter whether the sequence is /jɨw/ or /wɨj/.
There is no difference between how consonants influence the preceding vowel and the following vowel. So if /ɨ/ is between /j/ and /w/, in both cases it will be pronounced /y/, no matter whether the sequence is /jɨw/ or /wɨj/.
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/qənə̀bə/ - "dog", /qənə̀bəɴ/ - "dogs" (not */qənə̀bəwəɴ/)
/qənə̀bə/ - "dog", /qənə̀bəɴ/ - "dogs" (not */qənə̀bəwəɴ/)


When the plural suffix /-wəɴ/ comes after the second person plural possessive suffix /-ʔaɴʈɨnə/, they fuse to become /-ʔaɴʈɨnəɴ/, (not */-ʔaɴʈɨnəwəɴ/) e.g.
When the plural suffix /-wəɴ/ comes after the second person plural possessive suffix /-ʔaɴʈɨnə/, they fuse to become /-ʔaɴʈɨnəɴ/, (not */-ʔaɴʈɨnəwəɴ/) e.g.
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===Case===
===Case===


There are only two cases, nominative (unmarked) and genitive (marked with the suffix -qa). The genitive case also functions as an ergative marker.
There are only two cases, absolutive (unmarked) and genitive (marked with the suffix -qa). The genitive case also functions as an ergative marker e.g.
 
/qənə̀bə-qa ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ ʔaɴɖà-wɨ/
 
dog-ERG man.PL bite-3PS.NONHUM.TEL
 
The dog bit the men.
 
 
/ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ-qa qənə̀bə ʔaɴɖà-wɨ/
 
man.PL-ERG dog bite-3PS.PL.TEL
 
The men bit the dog.
 
 
In the above sentence, it is clear that /-qa/ is functioning as an ergative marker and not a genitive marker, because the word for "dog" is not marked with a possessive suffix. Compare:
 
/ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ-qa qənə̀baɴʈa ʔaɴɖà-wɨ/
 
man.PL-ERG dog.3PS.PL.POSS bite-3PS.PL.TEL
 
The men's dog was bitten.
 
 
The absolutive case is also used for indirect objects. If a sentence contains both a direct and an indirect object, the indirect object always comes first e.g.
 
/ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ-qa qənə̀bə ʔasətɨ̀ dəna-wɨ/
 
man.PL-ERG dog bone give-3PS.PL.TEL
 
The men gave the dog a bone.
 
 
Reversing the direct and the indirect object yields nonsensical sounding sentences:
 
/ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ-qa ʔasətɨ̀ qənə̀bə  dəna-wɨ/
 
man.PL-ERG bone dog give-3PS.PL.TEL
 
The men gave the dog to a bone.
 
 
====Fluid-S Marking====
 
Habyela is an active-stative language of the Fluid-S type https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active%E2%80%93stative_language. In addition to marking the subject of a transitive verb, /-qa/ is also used for the subject of an intransitive verb, as long as the action is volitional. Compare:
 
/ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ paʔà-ʔə/
 
man.PL fall-3PS.SG.MASC.TEL
 
The men fell (involitional, as in they accidentally fell over)
 
vs.
 
/ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ-qa paʔà-ʔə/
 
man.PL-ERG fall-3PS.SG.MASC.TEL
 
The men fell (volitional, as in they fell to the ground to hide or to duck something).




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These are conflated, so will be discussed together.
These are conflated, so will be discussed together.


Habyela verbs do not inflect for tense at all, but [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telicity Telicity] is very important. Marking of telicity is conflated with subject person / number agreement. Telic verbs take suffixes, and atelic vebs take either prefixes or circumfixes (depending on the person). There is also an irrealis mood that is used for suggestions, commands and hypothetical situations. In the irrealis mood, telicity is not marked, and some forms are identical to the atelic forms.
Habyela verbs do not inflect for tense at all, but [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telicity Telicity] is very important. Marking of telicity is conflated with subject person / number agreement. Telic verbs take suffixes, and atelic vebs take either prefixes or circumfixes (depending on the person). There is also an irrealis mood that is used for suggestions, commands, hypothetical situations, and whenever a verb is negated. In the irrealis mood, telicity is not marked, and some forms are identical to the atelic forms.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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| 3rd person plural / nonhuman || ... -wɨ || ɫə̀- ... -wɨ || ɫə̀- ... -wɨ
| 3rd person plural / nonhuman || ... -wɨ || ɫə̀- ... -wɨ || ɫə̀- ... -wɨ
|}
|}
===Object Agreement===


===Switch Reference===
===Switch Reference===
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3PS.SG.MASC.ATEL-sleep=SR.SUBJ kill-1PS.PL.TEL
3PS.SG.MASC.ATEL-sleep=SR.SUBJ kill-1PS.PL.TEL


He slept and we killed him (the same person).
"He slept and we killed him (the same person)"




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kill-1PS.PL.TEL=SR.OBJ hell 3PS.MASC.SG.ATEL-fall
kill-1PS.PL.TEL=SR.OBJ hell 3PS.MASC.SG.ATEL-fall


We killed him and he (the same person) is in hell.
"We killed him and he (the same person) is in hell"




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====Double Switch Reference====
====Indirect Object Switch Reference====
 
A similar thing can be done if the indirect object of the first clause is somehow involved in the second, using the clitic /ɟɨɕə/ e.g.
 
/ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ-qa qənə̀bə ʔasətɨ̀ dəna-wɨ=ɟɨɕə ɫə̀-pənʷa-wɨ/
 
man.PL-ERG dog bone give-3PS.PL.TEL=SR.INDIR ATEL-bark-3PS.NONHUM
 
"The men gave the dog a bone and it barked"
 
 
 
====Multiple Switch Reference====


If both the subject and the object of the first clause are involved in the second clause, the clitics are agglutinated (with /ɟʷə/ coming before the object switch reference clitics) e.g.
If more than one argument of the first clause are involved in the second clause, the clitics are agglutinated (in the order ɟʷə - ɟɨɕə - ɟɨsə~ɟɨɴ)


/cʷə̀ma-nə=ɟʷə=ɟɨsə qàʈana-nə/
/cʷə̀ma-nə=ɟʷə=ɟɨsə qàʈana-nə/
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stab-1PS.PL.TEL=SR.SUBJ=SR.OBJ kill-1PS.PL.TEL
stab-1PS.PL.TEL=SR.SUBJ=SR.OBJ kill-1PS.PL.TEL


We stabbed him and killed him (the same person).
"We stabbed him and killed him (the same person)"




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stab-1PS.PL.TEL=SR.SUBJ=SR.OBJ kill-3PS.MASC.SG.TEL
stab-1PS.PL.TEL=SR.SUBJ=SR.OBJ kill-3PS.MASC.SG.TEL


We stabbed him and he (the same person) killed us.
"We stabbed him and he (the same person) killed us"




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Habyela has [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_clause#Nonreduction_type Internally-Headed Relative Clauses]. Word order is not used to indicate a relative clause, or mark the head noun. Instead, this is done by inflecting the verb.
Habyela has [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_clause#Nonreduction_type Internally-Headed Relative Clauses]. Word order is not used to indicate a relative clause, or mark the head noun. Instead, this is done by inflecting the verb.


If the head noun is the subject of the verb, the verb takes the enclitic /ɟʷə/ (the same as for subject switch reference). If the head noun is the object of the verb, it takes the enclitic /ɟɨsə/ (for singular human nouns) or /ɟɨɴ/ otherwise.
If the head noun is the subject of the verb, the verb takes the enclitic /ɟʷə/ (the same as for subject switch reference). If the head noun is the direct object of the verb, it takes the enclitic /ɟɨsə/ (for singular human nouns) or /ɟɨɴ/ otherwise, and if it is the indirect object, it takes /ɟɨɕə/.


In addition to the above enclitics, verbs in relative clauses also take prefixes depending on the nature of the head noun, as well as whether the relative clause is restrictive or descriptive. These are:
In addition to the above enclitics, verbs in relative clauses also take prefixes depending on the nature of the head noun, as well as whether the relative clause is restrictive or descriptive. These are:
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| Adverbs/ Instrumental Nouns || cʷə- || bacʷə-
| Adverbs/ Instrumental Nouns || cʷə- || bacʷə-
|-
|-
| Collective || ʎʷə̀- || bʲawə-
| Locations || mə-|| bamə-
|}
 
For example, in the phrase:
 
/qənə̀bə-qa ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ wə-ʔaɴɖà-wɨ=ɟʷə/
 
dog-ERG man.PL RESTR.REL.NONHUM-bite-3PS.NONHUM.TEL=SR.SUBJ
 
"The dog that bit the men"
 
The verbal prefix /wə-/ marks a restrictive relative clause, where the head noun is either human plural or nonhuman. The enclitic /ɟʷə/ indicates that the head noun is the subject of the verb.
 
 
Compare the above to the phrase:
 
/qənə̀bə-qa ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ wə-ʔaɴɖà-wɨ=ɟɨɴ/
 
dog-ERG man.PL RESTR.REL.NONHUM-bite-3PS.NONHUM.TEL=SR.OBJ.PL
 
"The men that were bitten by the dog"
 
The verbal prefix remains the same, since /wə-/ marks head nouns that are either human plural or nonhuman. However, the enclitic changes from /ɟʷə/ to /ɟɨɴ/, since the head noun of the phrase is the object of the verb (and is human plural).
 
 
Using the prefix, indirect objects can also become the head noun of a relative clause e.g.
 
/ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ-qa qənə̀bə ʔasətɨ̀ wə-dəna-wɨ=ɟɨɕə/
 
man.PL-ERG dog bone RESTR.REL.NONHUM-give-3PS.PL.TEL=SR.INDIR
 
"The bone that the men gave to the dog."
 
 
When the head noun is a genitive possessor (alienable or inalienable), the clitic /ɟɨɲa/ is used e.g.
 
/ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ-qa qənə̀baɴʈa-qa ʔasətɨ̀ ʎə̀-ʔaɴɖà-wɨ=ɟɨɲa/
 
man.PL-GEN dog.3PS.PL.POSS-ERG bone RESTR.REL.HUMAN.SG-bite-3PS.NONHUM.TEL=SR.GEN
 
"The men whose dog bit the bone"
 
 
The prefixes /mə-/ and /bamə-/ are used where English would say "the place where ...". They do not require a clitic after the verb e.g.
 
/qənə̀bə-qa ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ paxàʔə mə-ʔaɴɖà-wɨ/
 
dog-ERG man.PL hill RESTR.REL.LOC-bite-3PS.NONHUM.TEL
 
"The hill where the dog bit the men".
 
 
Similarly, the prefixes /cʷə-/ and /bacʷə-/ are used where English would say "the time when ...". They do not require a clitic after the verb e.g.
 
/qənə̀bə-qa ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ ʔàtə cʷə-ʔaɴɖà-wɨ/
 
dog-ERG man.PL night RESTR.REL.ADV-bite-3PS.NONHUM.TEL
 
"The night when the dog bit the men"
 
 
The same form is used to talk about a tool or a method that was used to accomplish something e.g.
 
/ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ-qa qənə̀bə daʀa cʷə-qàʈana-wɨ/
 
man.PL-ERG dog knife RESTR.REL.ADV-kill-3PS.NONHUM.TEL
 
"The knife that the men killed the dog with"
 
 
==Pronouns==
 
Habyela is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-drop_language Pro-drop_language], meaning that pronouns can be freely left out of a sentence if they are obvious from context. This elision is especially common if the pronoun is the subject of a sentence, since verbs take affixes to indicate the subject anyway. Unlike nouns, pronouns do not inflect for case:
 
1st person singular: /ʔana/
 
1st person plural: /naxə̀nʷɨ/
 
2nd person: /ʔanəʈa/
 
3rd person masculine singular: /xʷɨ̀ma/
 
3rd person feminine singular: /çɨ̀ɫa/
 
3rd person plural: / nonhuman: /xʷɨ̀mɨ/
 
 
===Reflexive Pronouns===
 
There are special reflexive forms for each of the pronouns:
 
1st person singular: /ʔàɕə/
 
1st person plural :/ʔàsaɴʈɨnə/
 
2nd person: /ʔàsʷə/
 
3rd person male singular /ʔàsʷɨ/
 
3rd person female singular /ʔàsʷa/
 
3rd person plural / nonhuman /ʔàsaɴʈa/
 
 
==Relational Nouns==
 
Habyela does not have prepositions or postpositions. Rather it uses nouns for bodyparts to indicate location. English does this with the phrase "the foot of the mountain" (to mean below the mountain), but Habyela does this across the entire language. For example, to say "in ...", a Habyela speaker would say "...'s belly" e.g.
 
/paɲɨ pʲəʈaɴʈa paʔà-qʷɨ/
 
water belly.3PS.NONHUM.POSS fall-1PS.SG.TEL
 
"I fell in the water" (literally "I fell water's belly")
 
 
These are possessive phrases, as is evident from the fact that possessive suffixes are used. Also, when they are relativised, the clitic /ɟɨɲa/ is used (which is normally used when English would use "... whose ....") e.g.
 
/paɲɨ pʲəʈaɴʈa wə-paʔà-qʷɨ=ɟɨɲa/
 
water belly.3PS.NONHUM.POSS RESTR.REL.3PS.NONHUM-fall-1PS.SG.TEL
 
"The water that I fell in".
 
 
To say "on ...", Habyela speakers would say "...'s back" e.g.
 
/saʔə̀ pʲatɕaɴʈa paʔà-qʷɨ/
 
grass back.3PS.NONHUM.POSS fall-1PS.SG.TEL
 
I fell on the grass
 
 
===Comparative Constructions===
 
/pʲatɕə/ - "back" can also take a possessive suffix to mean "more than ..." e.g.
 
/qənə̀bəɴ-qa ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ pʲatɕaɴʈa ɫə̀-nama-wɨ/
 
dog.PL-ERG men.PL back.3PS.PL.POSS ATEL-sleep-3PS.NONHUMAN
 
Dogs sleep more than men do.
 
==Demonstratives==
 
Habyela's demonstrative system is very much like English. There is a two-way distance contrast, and no contrast between pronominal and adnominal demonstratives.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!  !! Singular !! Plural
|-
| Near || jɨsə || jɨnə
|-
|-
| Locations || mə-|| bamə-
| Far || wɨsə || wɨnə
|}
|}
==Syntax==
Habyela sentences are strictly verb final. SOV is much more common than OSV. Noun phrases have the word order [Demonstrative] [Number] [Adjective] Noun.
===Adverbs===
Adverbs are formed by reduplicating the last syllable of a bare root e.g.
dəməqə̀ - loud
dəməqə̀qə - loudly
In a sentence, adverbs come immediately before the verb e.g.
qənə̀bə dəməqə̀~qə ɫə̀-pənʷa-wɨ
dog loud~ADV 3PS.NONHUMAN.ATEL-bark
The dog barked loudly.
==Copula==
To combine two nouns A and B to make a sentence meaning "A is B", Habyela would say /A B-ça/ (if the subject is singular) and /A B-çaɴ/ (if the subject is plural). No matter whether or not A is singular or plural, the singular form of B is always used. For example:
jɨsə banàw-ça
this beach-COP.SG
This is the/a beach
jɨnə banàw-çaɴ
these beach-COP.PL
These are (the) beaches.
Note that -ça(ɴ) is the suffix for a predicate adjective e.g.
/ʔàtə qanʷə̀-ça/
night black-COP
The night is black.
-ça(ɴ) can also attach to a relational noun, to express location. Like English, Habyela conflates nominal and locational predication e.g.
/qənə̀bə paɲɨ pʲəʈaɴʈa-ça/
dog water belly.3PS.NONHUM.POSS-COP.SG
The dog is in the water.
==Predicative Possession==
Habyela has no verb corresponding to English "have". Where English speakers would say "A has B", Habyela speakers simply say "B is on A" (even if B is not technically "on" the object, Habyela speakers still use this construction) e.g.
/qənə̀bə ʔàɟʷɨnəɴ pʲatɕaɴʈa-ça/
dog man.PL back.3PS.PL.POSS-COP.SG
The men have a dog (literally "a dog is on the men")
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Afroasiatic languages]]
[[Category:Habyela]]
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