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'''Is Burunking''' (/is buɾˈuŋkiŋ/, literally 'Burungian language') is the language of Burung, an island in the north Atlantic Ocean.
{{Infobox language
|name = Is Burunking
|nativename = Is
|pronunciation = [is]
|creator = Neil Whalley
|region = Burung
|states = Burung
|nation = Burung
|speakers = ?
|date =
|familycolor = Isolate
|script        = [[w:Latin script|Latin script]] <br/> Hookozoi
}}
 
'''Is Burunking''' (/is buɾˈunkiŋ/, literally 'Burungian language') is the language of Burung, an island in the north Atlantic Ocean.


==Background==
==Background==
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Example categories/headings:
Goals
Setting
Inspiration
-->
<!-- ***Phonology*** -->
<!-- What sounds does your language use? -->
<!-- Here are some example sub-/other categories:
Vowel inventory
Consonant inventory
Syllable structure
Stress
Intonation
-->
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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|
|
|}
|}
Consonants generally do not occur in clusters, with some exceptions (see [[#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] below). Any consonant except a fricative may occur as a geminate word-internally.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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|-
|-
! style="" |Close
! style="" |Close
| i
| ɨ
| u
| ʉ
|-
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
! style="" |Open-mid
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|}
|}


Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in ''eekez'' 'left' /ɛːkɛz/. Note that word-initial sequences of ''i + i'' and ''u + uu'' are written ''yi-'', ''-wu''.  
Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in ''eekez'' 'left' /ɛːkɛz/.  
 
:: <small>'''Note:''' word-initial sequences of ''i + i'' and ''u + uu'' are written ''yi-'', ''wu-''. </small>


===Diphthongs===
===Diphthongs===
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===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Is Burunking has a relatively restrictive syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are restrictions on the other elements also:
Is Burunking has a relatively restrictive syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
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| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" |
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" |
* optional  
* optional  
* only ''b, g, d, h, x, l, n, ng'' or ''m'' word-initially  
* only ''b, g, d, z, f, j, h, x, l, n, ng'' or ''m'' word-initially  
* any consonant word-medially
* any consonant word-medially
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " |  
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " |  
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* optional  
* optional  
* only ''s, sh, ng'' or ''z'' word-finally  
* only ''s, sh, ng'' or ''z'' word-finally  
* only ''n'' or ''m'' before a consonant
* only ''n'' or ''m'' before a consonant, except in the case of geminates
|}
|}


The word-final consonants ''s, sh, ng'' and ''z'' are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:
The word-final consonants ''s, sh, ng'' and ''z'' are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:
* Final ''-s'' is lost, the preceding vowel lengthens and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: ''is'' 'language, speech' + ''-do'' (pejorative) = ''yito'' 'curse', ''os'' 'cold' + ''-pung'' (abstract) = ''oopung'' 'coldness'.
* Final ''-sh'' is replaced by ''-i-'', forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel (''ush > oi'', ''ish > ei, ii''), and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: ''banash'' 'fruit' + ''-to'' (diminutive) = ''banaito'' 'berry', ''ush'' 'empty' + ''gyong'' 'person' = ''oikyong'' 'vain person'.
* Final ''-ng'' becomes ''-n-'' (or ''-m'' before ''p, b, f''): ''gyong'' 'person' + ''-zoi'' (collective) = ''gyonzoi'' 'team, band', ''yong'' 'smooth' + ''-pung'' (abstract) = ''yompung'' 'smoothness'.
* Final ''-z'' is lost entirely: ''az'' 'man' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''achi'' 'masculine'.


Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings. In words of three or more syllables, the vowel is always lost, e.g. ''arato'' 'food' + ''-oi'' (adjectival) = ''aratoi'' 'gluttonous', ''eshayo'' 'sea' + ''ugi'' 'bread' = ''eshayugi'' 'seaweed'. Words of two syllables usually lose their final vowel, e.g. ''binji'' 'mountain' + ''arate'' 'gap' = ''binjarate'' 'mountain pass', but when the second word is only one syllable the final vowel sometimes remains, forming a glide in the case of ''i'' or ''u'' e.g. ''bigi'' 'eye' + ''uz'' 'water' = ''bigyuz''. In reduplication, the final vowel often remains in disyllables, e.g. ''aze-aze'' 'very dark'.
* ''-s'' is lost, the preceding vowel is doubled and a following voiced plosive is devoiced:
:: ''is'' 'language, speech' + ''-do'' (pejorative) = ''yito'' 'curse'
:: ''os'' 'cold' + ''-pung'' (abstract) = ''oopung'' 'coldness'
* ''-sh'' becomes ''-i-'', forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel, and a following voiced plosive is devoiced:
:: ''banash'' 'fruit' + ''-to'' (diminutive) = ''banaito'' 'berry'
:: ''ush'' 'empty' + ''gyong'' 'person' = ''wikyong'' 'vain person'
* ''-ng'' becomes ''-m'' before ''p, b, f'' and ''n'' before any other consonant:
:: ''gyong'' 'person' + ''-zoi'' (collective) = ''gyonzoi'' 'team, band'
:: ''yong'' 'smooth' + ''-pung'' (abstract) = ''yompung'' 'smoothness'
* ''-z'' is lost and causes a following consonant to double (except ''s, z, f, x, h''):
:: ''az'' 'man' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''acchi'' 'masculine'
:: ''haaz'' 'old' + ''-ki'' (nominal) = ''haakki'' 'antique, relic'
 
In some cases a word ending in a vowel + ''-i'' will alter to vowel + ''-u'' when a suffix or the second element of a compound begins with a consonant:
:: ''
 
Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings:
* In words of three or more syllables, the vowel is always lost, e.g. ''arato'' 'food' + ''-oi'' (adjectival) = ''aratoi'' 'gluttonous', ''eshayo'' 'sea' + ''ugi'' 'bread' = ''eshayugi'' 'seaweed'.  
* Words of two syllables usually lose their final vowel, e.g. ''binji'' 'mountain' + ''arate'' 'gap' = ''binjarate'' 'mountain pass', but when the second word is only one syllable the final vowel sometimes remains, forming a glide in the case of ''i'' or ''u'' e.g. ''bigi'' 'eye' + ''uz'' 'water' = ''bigyuz'' 'tear'.  
* In reduplication, the final vowel usually remains in disyllables, but an epenthetic ''k'' (occasionally ''y'') is inserted between the elements:  ''aze'''k'''aze'' 'very dark'.


===Stress===
===Stress===
Primary stress is generally on the penultimate syllable of polysyllables, e.g. ''berósu'' 'nine', ''esháyo'' 'sea', ''ázeng'' 'fish'.
Primary stress is generally on the penultimate syllable of polysyllables, e.g. ''berósu'' 'nine', ''esháyo'' 'sea', ''ázeng'' 'fish'.
In true verbs, primary stress is always placed on the first syllable of the root, e.g. ''eróz'' 'go down', ''isúru'' 'go past'.
In compounds, the primary stress is placed on the second element, with secondary stress on the first.


===Orthography===
===Orthography===
Is Burunking was originally written in a syllabary called ''hookozoi'', mainly carved into wood or, occasionally, stone.  
Is Burunking was originally written in a syllabary called ''hookozoi'', mainly carved into wood or, occasionally, stone.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!  !! a !! e !! i !! o !! u !! Ø
|-
! Ø
| a || e || i || o || u || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! y
| ya || ye || yi || yo || yu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! w
| wa || we || wi || wo || wu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! b
| ba || be || bi || bo || bu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! d
| da || de || ji || do || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! g
| ga || ge || gi || go || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! p
| pa || pe || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | || pu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! t
| ta || te || chi || to || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! k
| ka || ke || ki || ko || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! f
| fa || fe || fi || fo || fu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! h
| ha || he || style="background: lightgray;" | || ho || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! x
| xa || xe || xi || xo || xu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! s
| sa || se || style="background: lightgray;" | || so || su || s
|-
! sh
| sha || she || shi || sho || shu || sh
|-
! m
| ma || me || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | || mu || rowspan="2;" | m/n
|-
! n
| na || ne || ni || no || nu
|-
! ng
| nga || nge || ngi || ngo || style="background: lightgray;" | || ng
|-
! l
| la || le || li || lo || lu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! r
| ra || re || ri || ro || ru || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! z
| za || ze || zi || zo || zu || z
|}
 
 


When the language was initially discovered by Europeans the Greek alphabet was used in its transcription, but later studies preferred to use the Latin script, which is still used today.
When the language was initially discovered by Europeans the Greek alphabet was used in its transcription, but later studies preferred to use the Latin script, which is still used today.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable"
! style="width: 90px; " |Graph
! style="width: 90px; " |Graph
! style="width: 90px; "  |IPA
! style="width: 90px; "  |IPA
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|}
|}


In word or syllable initial position the sequences ''ii, uu'' are written ''yi, wu''. The glide /j/ is always written ''y'' but /w/ is written ''u'' following a consonant and ''w'' syllable initially.  
In word or syllable initial position the sequences ''ii, uu'' are written ''yi, wu''. The glide /j/ is always written ''y'' but /w/ is written ''u'' following a consonant and ''w'' syllable initially.


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
====Gender====
====Gender====
Nouns are classified as either '''animate''' (''bixi'') or '''inanimate''' (''ee bixi'') and animate nouns belong to one of three genders: '''masculine''' (''achi''), '''feminine''' (''buyachi'') or '''common''' (''iriji''). Inclusion within a class is based to a large extent on natural gender.
Strictly speaking, Is Burunking, like English, does not have grammatical gender affecting the morphology of words. Their concept of natural gender, however, is substantially different from many other cultures and does influence language to certain extent. It is rooted in a more fundamental understanding of how things in the world are related and categorised.
 
At its most basic, all things (and the names that describe them) are considered either '''animate''' (''bixi'') or '''inanimate''' (''es bixi''). The primary distinction between these two groups is that animate nouns are capable of movement under their own power, but inanimate ones are not. Humans, animals and deities are therefore considered animate (as are some celestial bodies), whereas plants, rocks and abstract concepts are inanimate.  


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"
Within the class of animate nouns, a further distinction is made between three genders: '''masculine''' (''acchi''), '''feminine''' (''buyachi'') or '''middle''' (''iriji''). Inclusion within one of these three groups is based to some extent on biological sex, but also takes into account personality, strengths and a chosen role within society.
! rowspan="3" style="width: 90px; " |Animate <br/> ''Bixi''
 
! style="width: 90px; " | Masculine <br/> ''Achi''
At birth, all human children are considered to be ''iriji'' and remain so throughout childhood until the onset of puberty. At some point during puberty, depending on the development of the individual, the child will be undergo an initiation into adulthood as either ''acchi'', ''buyachi'' or ''iriji'', taking a gendered form of their name and a byname to symbolise this important rite of passage. The choice of appropriate gender is made by the community elders, with input from the parents and/or foster parents, based on an understanding of the individual.
| style="width: 250px; text-align:left;" |
 
* adult male humans
There are no hard and fast rules regarding gender, rather each has a series of complex associations.
* some male animals
The table below shows some of the basic characteristics for each group:
* male deities
 
* ''fu'' 'fire', ''oi'' 'sun'
{| class="wikitable"  border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! rowspan=2; width="125px;"| !! colspan=3; | Bixi !! rowspan=2; width="175px;" | Eipixi
|-
! width="175px;" | Buyachi !! width="175px;" | Iriji !! width="175px;" | Achi
|-
! Element
| Earth || Fire || Water || Air
|-
! Direction
| East || South || West || North
|-
! Season
| Spring || Summer || Autumn || Winter
|-
! Celestial Body
| Moon || Sun || Moon || Sun
|-
! Lunar Phase
| Waxing || Full || Waning || New
|-
! Solar Phase
| Dawn || Day || Evening || Night
|-
! Temperature
| Warm/Wet || Hot/Dry || Cool/Wet || Cold/Dry
|-
|-
! style="width: 90px; " | Feminine <br/> ''Buyachi''
! Family
| style="width: 250px; text-align:left;" |
| Mother || Child || Father || House
* adult female humans
* some female animals
* female deities
* ''luz'' 'earth'
|-
|-
! style="width: 90px; " | Common <br/> ''Iriji''
! Aspect
| style="width: 250px; text-align:left;" |
| Emotional || Intellectual || Physical || Material
* human children
* most animals
* edible plants
* ''uz'' 'water', ''yozi'' 'rain'
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " | Inanimate <br/> ''Ee Bixi''
! Noun class
| style="width: 250px; text-align:left;" |
| adult female humans <br /> some female animals <br /> female deities
* unmoving objects
| human children <br /> adult ''iriji'' humans <br /> most animals <br /> ''iriji'' deities
* most materials
| adult male humans <br /> some male animals  <br /> male deities
* abstracts
| unmoving objects <br /> most materials <br /> abstracts
|}
|}


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Relationships between nouns in a sentence are marked by particles following the noun.
Relationships between nouns in a sentence are marked by particles following the noun.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"  border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
|-
! Case !! Particle !! Uses  
! Case !! Particle !! Uses  
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====Number====
====Number====
Nouns are generally not marked for number and context is usually sufficient to show whether ''heuji'' means 'horse' or 'horses'. Numerals or adjectives can be used to qualify the noun for number, e.g. ''bade oz'' 'one dog, a dog'.
Nouns are generally not marked for number and context is usually sufficient to show whether, e.g. ''heuji'' means 'horse' or 'horses'. Numerals or adjectives can be used to qualify the noun for number, e.g. ''bade oz'' 'one dog, a dog'.
 
There are two collective suffixes, which may sometimes translate the English plural:
* '''''-zoi''''' is used to refer to a discrete group of things, usually occupying a single location, e.g. ''gyonzoi'' 'band, group, team of people', ''heujizoi'' 'a herd of horses'.
* '''''-bua''''' is more abstract, referring to all things within a class collectively and also to the state of being an object within that class, similar in some ways to the English suffix '-hood' in a word like 'priesthood', e.g. ''gyombua'' 'everybody, humanity, humankind, population', ''binjibua'' 'mountains'.  


There are two collective suffixes, which may sometimes translate the English plural: ''-zoi'' is used to refer to a group of things, usually within a single place, e.g. ''gyonzoi'' 'band, group, team of people', ''heujizoi'' 'a herd of horses'; ''-bua'' is more abstract, referring to all things within a class collectively and also to the state of being an object within that class, similar in some ways to the English suffix '-hood' in a word like 'priesthood', e.g. ''gyombua'' 'everybody, humanity, humankind, population', ''binjibua'' 'mountains'. Both of these suffixes are productive, though in some cases the noun with the suffix has taken on a specialised meaning as in ''azoi'' 'council, assembly' from ''az'' 'man'. Reduplication may also be used to express a large group of something, often with an intensive meaning, e.g. ''gyongyong'' 'crowd, mass of people', ''yaiyai'' 'storm' (from ''yai'' 'wind').
Both of these suffixes are productive, though in some cases the noun with the suffix has taken on a specialised meaning as in ''azoi'' 'council, assembly' from ''az'' 'man'.  
 
Reduplication may also be used to express a large group of something, often with an intensive meaning, e.g. ''gyongyong'' 'crowd, mass of people', ''yaiyai'' 'storm' (from ''yai'' 'wind').


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
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Superlatives are formed from the positive adjective with the suffix ''-na'' and precede the noun they modify, e.g. ''enjina az'' "biggest man", ''lashana ebaz'' "quietest river". The usual sentence structure follows the pattern [Topic] + ''ba'' (+ [Location] + ''gang'') + [Superlative] + [Noun] + ''da'', e.g. ''Eric ba (Burung gang) enjina az da'' "Eric is the tallest man (in Burung)''.
Superlatives are formed from the positive adjective with the suffix ''-na'' and precede the noun they modify, e.g. ''enjina az'' "biggest man", ''lashana ebaz'' "quietest river". The usual sentence structure follows the pattern [Topic] + ''ba'' (+ [Location] + ''gang'') + [Superlative] + [Noun] + ''da'', e.g. ''Eric ba (Burung gang) enjina az da'' "Eric is the tallest man (in Burung)''.
===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
| '''1''' || ''zu'' || ''leneng''
|-
| '''2''' || ''hai'' || ''uzeng''
|-
| '''3''' || ''gi'' || ''gichi''
|-
| '''4''' || ''baka'' || ''bakachi''
|-
| '''5''' || ''utu'' || ''utuchi''
|-
| '''6''' || ''xa'' || ''xachi''
|-
| '''7''' || ''gyeng'' || ''gyenchi''
|-
| '''8''' || ''eileng'' || ''eilenchi''
|-
| '''9''' || ''zuneng'' || ''zunenchi''
|-
| '''10''' || ''haz'' || ''hachi''
|-
| '''11''' || ''zu-haz'' || ''zu-hachi''
|-
| '''20''' || ''hatorung'' || ''hatorunchi''
|-
| '''21''' || ''zu-hatorung'' || ''zu-hatorunchi''
|-
| '''30''' || ''gyauka'' || ''gyaukachi''
|-
| '''40''' || ''bakauka'' || ''bakaukachi''
|-
| '''50''' || ''utauka'' || ''utaukachi''
|-
| '''60''' || ''xauka'' || ''xaukachi''
|-
| '''70'''|| ''gyengauka'' || ''gyengaukachi''
|-
| '''80''' || ''eilengauka'' || ''eilengaukachi''
|-
| '''90''' || ''zunengauka'' || ''zunengaukachi''
|-
| '''100''' || ''inung'' || ''inunchi''
|-
| '''101''' || ''zu-inung'' || ''zu-inunchi''
|-
| '''121''' || ''zu-hatorung-inung'' || ''zu-hatorung-inunchi''
|}


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
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! rowspan="3" | 3
! rowspan="3" | 3
! masculine  
! masculine  
| ''ngane''
| ''az'' || ''azoi''
| rowspan="3" | ''xinxing''
|-
|-
! feminine
! feminine
| ''nepa''
| ''buya'' || ''buyazoi''
|-
|-
! common
! common
| ''xing''
| ''xini'' || ''xinizoi''
|-
|-
|}
|}




There are no inanimate forms, the demonstrative pronouns being used instead.
There are no inanimate forms, the demonstrative pronoun ''ong'' being used instead.


Possessives may be formed with the postposition ''go'', e.g. ''ni go yata'' 'my father', ''xing go eshe'' 'its house'. The phrase ''go buru'' is used with the pronouns to create reflexive pronouns, e.g. ''yi go buru'' 'yourself',
Possessives may be formed with the particle ''eng'', e.g. ''ni eng yata'' "my father", ''xini eng eshe'' "its house".


====Demonstrative====
====Reflexive====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align:center;"
The reflexive pronoun ''bera'' is used as the direct or indirect object of a verb, referring the action back to the subject. The pronoun doesn't change for person or number and simply fills the relevant object slot of the sentence, e.g. ''az ba bera ke bigiipush fong'' "he saw himself", ''ni eng asho ba bera ni inua da'' "my grandma talks to herself". It is usually only used with animate subjects.
! style="width: 150px; "| this
 
| style="width: 150px; "| ''waz''
====Demonstratives====
There are three series of demonstratives expressing three degrees of proximity:
* ''ong'' "this" denotes objects close to the speaker
* ''uri'' "that" (proximal) denotes objects close to the hearer
* ''ang'' "that" (distal) denotes objects at a distance or abstract
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2;"  |  !! this <br/> ''ong'' !! that (prox.) <br/> ''uri'' !! that (dist.) <br/> ''ang''
|-
! colspan="2;" | Object (inan.)
| ''ong'' <br/> this || ''uri'' <br/> that || ''ang'' <br/> that yonder
|-
! rowspan="3;" | person || m
| ''azong'' <br/> that man || ''azuri'' <br/> that man || ''azang'' <br/> that man yonder
|-
! f.
| ''buyong'' <br/> this woman || ''buyuri'' <br/> that woman  || ''buyang'' <br/> that woman yonder
|-
! c.
| ''xinyong'' <br/> this ''xini'' || ''xinyuri'' <br/> that ''xini'' || ''xinyang'' <br/> that ''xini'' yonder
|-
! colspan="2;" | Place
| ''ukyong'' <br/> here || ''ukyuri'' <br/> there || ''ukyang'' <br/> yonder
|-
|-
! style="width: 150px; "| that (non-distal)
! colspan="2;" | Way
| style="width: 150px; "| ''uri''
| ''bideung'' <br/> this way || ''bideuri'' <br/> that way || ''bideeng'' <br/> that way yonder
|-
|-
! style="width: 150px; "| that (distal)
! colspan="2;" | Time
| style="width: 150px; "| ''az''
| ''eujong'' <br/> now || ''eujuri'' <br/> then (recent) || ''eujang'' <br/> then (distant)
|}
|}


These forms are all really pronouns, but they may perform adjectival or adverbial functions. The simple forms ''ong, uri, ang'' are used as adjectives following a noun, e.g. ''eshe uri'' "that house". As pronouns, these are used with inanimate objects and the 'person' forms are used with animates, agreeing in gender with the (natural) gender of the object, e.g. ''ang ba ni eng eshe da'' "that is my house", ''azong ba buya eng yata da'' "this (man) is her father".


The demonstratives may be used attributively following the noun, e.g. ''az waz'' 'this man', ''xagaz uri'' 'that apple', ''binji az'' 'that mountain'. With ''uki'' they form the equivalent adverbs of place: ''uki waz'' 'here', ''uki uri'' 'there', ''uki az'' 'there (distal)'.  
The 'place', 'way' and 'time' forms function as adverbs when they take the appropriate case particle, e.g. ''andosh ba ukyong a etozi heng'' "the king came here", ''eujong gang ni ba yus zu'' "I am leaving now".


====Interrogative====
====Interrogative====
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===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Verbs are marked for aspect and variations in tense, mood and valency are indicated by means of particles that follow the verb. Person, gender and number are not marked on verbs.


One of the defining features of Is Burunking is a relatively small class of '''true verbs''' (less than 50), which carry a range of rather generic senses. A large proportion of these verbs are associated with movement along a specific path, and beside the simple ''ibii'' "move, travel" there are verbs meaning "go (away from speaker), go (away from 3rd person), go up, go down, go in, go out, come (to speaker), come (to 3rd person)". Others are associated with basic human functions ("consume, expel, perceive"), actions ("do, collect, hit") or existence ("be, have"). These 'true' verbs may take a limited number of prefixes to extend their meaning, e.g. ''erakash'' "teach" < ''ekash'' "learn". To create a much wider variety of senses the true verbs, whether simple or prefixed, are compounded with other elements, primarily nouns, other verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
Burunking verbs are usually composed of two elements: the '''main verb''' which contains the semantic information and an '''auxiliary verb''' that contains most of the conjugation information. Verbs may be conjugated according to the following criteria:
* Tense: past or non-past
* Mood: indicative, hypothetical, hortative, imperative
* Aspect: imperfective or perfective
* Valency: transitive, intransitive, applicative or causative.
 
====Main Verbs====
Main verbs contain the primary semantic information of the Burunking verb form. At the heart of the main verb is a verbal root, one of a small closed class of elements denoting either basic physical processes (e.g. ''ANG'' "eat"), states (e.g. ''YEKI'' "stand") or types of movement (e.g. ''BII'' "move"). Verbal roots cannot occur independently and, at the most basic, must be accompanied by the prefix ''e-, i-'' or ''y-'' to create a simple non-finite verb stem, e.g. ''yang'' "eat", ''eyeki'' "stand", ''ibii'' "move".
 
::<small>'''''Note''''': where verbal roots are shown alone in this article, they will be written in caps to indicate their dependent status, e.g. ''ANG''</small>
 
The meaning of the verbal root may be modified by one of three processes:
* '''Reduplication''' of the root creates an intensive or '''frequentative''' meaning, e.g. ''ibiibii'' "flit about", ''yangang'' "scoff, gobble", ''inuanua'' "chatter, babble" (< ''NUA'' "speak, make noise").
* '''The infix ''-na-''''' may precede the root to create a '''pejorative''' verb indicating perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enaro'' "molest, chafe" < ''RO'' "touch", ''enaus'' "flee, escape" < ''US'' "move away".
* '''The suffix ''-ki''''' may be added to the end of the root, creating an '''applicative''' whereby the direct object of the verb denotes the benefactor, malefactor, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb, e.g. ''egonki'' "wait for" < ''GONG'' "wait, stay".


====The True Verbs====
The majority of main verbs replace the prefix with a nominal element that alters the meaning of the root. The initial element may be:
True verbs consist of a prefix and a root. In the base form of the verb (i.e. when it stands alone), the prefix is ''e-, i-'' or ''y-'' and bears no particular meaning.


The following prefixes may be used with the true verbs, replacing the ''e-, i-'' or ''y-'' of the base:
* a '''noun''' denoting the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''burushigos'' "throw a spear" (< ''burushi'' "spear" + ''GOS'' "throw"), ''xennua'' "call by name" (< ''xeng'' "name" + ''NUA'' "speak"). These verbs may be intransitive, with the incorporated noun acting as the true direct object, or transitive taking a new direct object, e.g. ''az ba burushigos da'' "he throws a spear", ''Furiko ba ni eng yata az ni ke xennua zu'' "my father calls me Furiko".
* ''era-'' (causative), e.g. ''erakash'' "teach" < ''ekash'' "learn", ''erayeki'' "build, erect" < ''eyeki'' "stand".
* a '''verbal noun''' denoting the primary action or state of the verb, e.g. ''loging'' "sleep" (< ''lo'' "sleep, sleeping" + ''GING'' "do"), ''neilung'' "want, desire" (< ''nei'' "wanting, desire" + ''LUNG'' "have").  
* ''ena-'' (pejorative), e.g. ''enaro'' "molest" < ''ero'' "touch", ''enaus'' "flee, escape" < ''yus'' "move away". The prefix specifically indicates perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances and does not suggest that the action of the verb was performed badly.  
* an '''adjective''' to denote various senses of being or becoming the quality of the adjective, or to denote the subject's opinion depending on the verb used, ''furitoz'' "become white" (< ''furi'' "white" + ''TOZ'' "come"), ''onshi'' "like, approve" (< ''ong'' "good" + ''SHI'' "think, consider").
* an '''adverb''' indicating the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''wengeepii'' "walk" (< ''wenges'' "by foot" + ''BII'' "move"), ''laitekkibii'' "move quickly" (< ''laitekki'' "quickly" + ''BII'').


The root of a true verb may also be reduplicated to form a verb with intensive or frequentative meaning, e.g. ''ewaawas'' "stomp, trample", ''inuanua'' "shout, roar", ''eralulu'' "destroy".
=====Perfective=====
Main verbs are considered to be imperfective, generally denoting incomplete or non-finite actions. In order to indicate a completed action the perfective suffix ''-i'' is added to the verb, e.g. ''yangi'' "ate", ''enaroi'' "molested", ''burushigoshi'' "threw a spear", ''ibiyi'' "moved".  


The following are the main true verbs:
====Auxiliary Verbs====
Auxiliary verbs carry most of the information regarding tense, mood and valency in the verb form. Each auxiliary is based on one of twelve particles, four intransitive, four transitive and four causative, to indicate past and non-past indicative, hypothetical and hortative moods. In addition, there is an imperative mood, created from the main verb alone. The table below indicates the particles with the primary uses.


{| width="90%;"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| width="10%;" | ''eba'' || width="40"%;" | (vt.) incise, cut || width="10%;" | ''exaz'' || width="40%;" | (vt.) enter, penetrate, go in
|-
| ''ebang''  || (vt.) give; provide || ''exoz'' || (vt.) beget, produce, create
|-
|| ''ebei'' || (vt.) collect, gather; (vi.) assemble || ''eyeki'' || (vi. & vt.) stand
|-
| ''ebeng'' || (vi.) sit; (vt.) put, set || ''iji'' || (vi.) appear; (vt.) appear
|-
| ''egaa'' || (vt.) get, obtain; understand || ''ibii'' || (vi.) move (without reference to path), travel
|-
| ''egang'' || (vi.) ascend, rise, improve; (vt.) ascend || ''iging'' || (vt.) make, do
|-
| ''egong'' || (vi.) remain || ''ilu'' || (vi.) die, break, stop, cease
|-
| ''egos'' || (vt.) shoot, throw || ''iluaz'' || (vi. & vt.) disperse
|-
| ''egosh'' || (vi. & vt.) heat, cook || ''ilung'' || (vt.) have, hold; use
|-
| ''ekash'' || (vi. & vt.) learn || ''inua'' || (vi. & vt.) speak,(make) sound
|-
| ''elaz'' || (vi. & vt.) divide || ''ipush'' || (vt.) perceive, know, sense
|-
| ''ero'' || (vt.) touch, come into contact with || ''izung'' || (vt.) expel
|-
| ''esuang'' || (vi.) lie down; (vt.) lay || ''yang'' || (vt.) consume
|-
|-
| ''etoz'' || (vi.) come, move towards (speaker) || ''yata'' || (vi.) happen, occur
! Function !! Intransitive !! Transitive !! Causative !! Usage with Imperfective or Perfective (excl. Causative)
|-
|-
| ''ewang'' || (vi.) go, move away from (speaker) || ''yehang'' || (vi.) be, exist, live
| Non-Past|| ''da ''|| ''zu'' || ''dara'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at the time of speaking or a future, e.g. ''yang da'' "eats, is eating, will eat". <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at the time of speaking, creating a near-past tense, e.g. ''yangi da'' "has eaten".
|-
|-
| ''ewas'' || (vi.) step, pace, tread || ''yosh'' || (vt.) pierce, stab, puncture
| Past || ''heng'' || ''fong'' || ''herang'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at some past time (past progressive), e.g. ''yang heng'' "was eating" <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at some past time (remote-past), e.g. ''yangi heng'' "had eaten".
|-
|-
| ''ewash'' || (vi. & vt.) descend || ''yuki'' || (vt.) exit, leave, go out of
| Hypothetical || ''li'' || ''lu'' || ''lerai'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an ongoing hypothetical action, e.g. ''yang li'' "may be eating, may eat". <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes a completed hypothetical action, e.g. ''yangi li'' "may have eaten".
|-
|-
| ''eresh'' || (vi. & vt.) constrict, squeeze || ''yus'' || (vt.) leave, go away from
| Hortative || ''bii'' || ''byo'' || ''berai'' || Used only with the '''Impf.''' to express a wish or an entreaty, e.g. ''yang bii'' "let's eat"
|-
|-
| ''ewaging'' || (vt.) approach, come near to ||  ''ishi'' || (vt.) consider, regard
| Imperative || -- || -- || -- || Used only with the '''Impf.''' to give a direct command, e.g. ''yang!'' "eat!"
|}
|}


====Compound Verbs====
To these base particles, a number of prefixes may be added, in reverse order:
The range of meaning of each true verb is extended considerably by compounding with other forms, according to a few simple rules. In each case the other element precedes the main verb and the meaningless prefix of the base form is lost (''era-, ena-'' are also reduced to ''-ra-, -na-'').  
* The '''negative''' prefix is ''ei-'', which becomes ''-i-'' after another prefix and always causes a following ''d-'' or ''b-'' to devoice, e.g. ''yang eita'' "doesn't eat".  
* The '''conditional''' prefix is ''ba-'', equivalent to "if" in English, e.g. ''yangi baheng'' "if he has eaten". The negative form is ''bai-'', e.g. ''baita'' "if it is not".
* The '''modal''' prefixes are:
** ''nei-'' denoting desire or wish to do something, e.g. ''yang neida'' "want to eat". The negative form is ''neiki-'', e.g. ''yang neikita'' "don't want to eat";
** ''nau-'' denoting ability or possibility, e.g. ''Inlanko ke eiranging nauzu'' "can read". The negative form is ''nawi-''.
** ''bez-'' denoting necessity, e.g. ''yang bedda'' "need to eat"


* '''Noun + Verb''' in which the noun denotes the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''burushigos'' "to throw a spear", ''bazenua'' "to laugh" (lit. "to say laughter" < ''baze'' "laughter").
===Postpositions===
** Where the noun is the true direct object, the resulting verb becomes intransitive (note the difference between ''burushi ke egos '''zu''''' "throwing a spear" (trans.) and ''burushigos '''da''''' (intrans.)). However, in many cases the incorporated noun is a generic object extending the sense of the verb. Where a more specific direct object is required, the verb remains transitive. Consider the following sentences
Spatial relations are largely expressed by means of the case particles, but additional senses can be expressed by nominal elements in combination with the gentive ''eng'' and the locative ''gang''. A concise list of forms expressing spatial relations is given below.  
:::: ''Ama ba arato ke omba ni ebang zu'' <br/> mother-TOP food-ACC child-DAT give PRT.pres.trans <br/> "A mother gives food to a child" (no incorporation)
:::: ''Ama ba omba ni aratobang da'' <br/> mother-TOP child-DAT food-give PRT.pres.intrans <br/> "A mother gives food to (feeds) a child"
:: In the second example the verb is intransitive and the direct object slot remains empty. It may be filled by a specific type of food, and the verb must become transitive:
:::: ''Ama ba heene ke omba ni aratobang zu'' <br/> mother-TOP milk-ACC child-DAT food-give PRT.pres.trans <br/> "A mother feeds milk to a child"
:: Where there is no specific direct object, the natural indirect object may be promoted to the grammatical object (taking ''ke'') by the addition of the suffix ''-ki'' to the end of the verb. This has the effect of creating a more intimate relationship between the subject and object:
:::: ''Ama ba ombe '''ke''' aratoban'''ki''' zu'' <br/> mother-TOP child-ACC food-give PRT.pres.trans <br/> "A mother feeds a child"
 
* '''Adjective + Verb''' to denote various senses of being or becoming the quality of the adjective.
* '''Verb + Verb''' in which the first verb modifies the sense of the second.
* '''Adverb + Verb''' in which the adverbs denotes the method, direction or means of doing the action.
** An adverb derived from a noun plus the adverbial suffix ''-(e)s'' may precede a verb to show the instrument by which the action is achieved, e.g. ''wengeepii'' "walk" (''weng'' "foot" + ''ibii'' "move"), ''aneetoopa'' "cut with knife" (''aneeto'' "knife" + ''eba'' "cut, incise").
** An adverb consisting of an adjective + ''-ki'' may precede a verb to denote manner, e.g. ''laitekibii'' "move quickly" (''laitez'' "quick"), ''byukinua'' "to babble, speak in tongues" (''byuz'' "twisted").
 
====Conjugation====
Verbs are conjugated largely by means of particles that follow the main verb. Verbs may express the following:
* Tense: present or non-present
* Mood: indicative, hypothetical, imperative
* Aspect: imperfective or perfective
* Valency: transitive, intransitive or causative.
 
The verb stem, whether primary or secondary, is considered imperfective in sense. A perfective sense is indicated by adding the suffix ''-i'' to the stem, e.g. ''yang'' "eats, eating" > ''yangi'' "ate", ''inuapush'' "asks, asking" > ''inuapushi'' "asked".  
 
There are two main sets of particles to indicate tense, mood and valency: ''da'' particles are used with intransitive verbs and ''zu'' particles with transitive and causative verbs. Each set has a different particle for present and past indicative, hypothetical and imperative. These are placed directly after the main verb, e.g. ''yang zu'' "is eating", ''erayekii fong'' "was building".


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3;" | Simple Particles
|-
|-
! Function !! Intransitive !! Transitive
| ''a'' || to, towards, up to || ''buya ba ibya a ewangi heng'' "the woman went to the river"
|-
|-
| Present || ''da ''|| ''zu''
| ''chi'' || from, of, off, through || ''ni eng asho binji chi ewashi heng'' "my grandmother came down from the mountain"
|-
|-
| Past || ''heng'' || ''fong''
| ''gang'' || in, on, at || ''arato ba jibang gang da'' "the food is on the floor"
|-
|-
| Hypothetical || ''li'' || ''lu''
| ''ha'' || with, by || ''eba byo aneeto ha'' "cut it with a knife!"
|-
|-
| Imperative || ''bii'' || ''byo''
| ''heez'' || across, over, beyond ||
|}
|-
 
| ''ni'' || to (recipient), for (purpose, intent) ||
Other particles may precede the main particle, giving further shades of meaning. These are usually joined with a hyphen, e.g. ''ngane ka etoz au-da?'' "will he come?"
|-
 
| ''ta'' || with (comitative) ||
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="3;" | Compounds with ''eng ... gang''
|-
| ''auda'' || beside, by ||
|-
|-
! Particle !! Meaning !! Uses
| ''bee'' || under, below, beneath ||
|-
|-
| ''ee'' || negative || negates any verb, e.g. ''nepa ka ilui ee-heng'' "she did not die"
| ''beekaz'' || behind, at the back of, after ||
|-
| ''bozu'' || inside ||
|-
|-
| ''au''|| interrogative || asks simple yes/no questions, e.g. ''yi ka ewang au-da?'' "are you going?"
| ''geeng'' || outside ||
|-
|-
| ''te'' || uncertainty || expresses uncertainty about the action of the verb, e.g. ''ngane ka loging te-da'' "perhaps he is sleeping"
| ''gyang'' || on top of, on ||  
|-
|-
| ''meng'' || hearsay || indicates that the speaker does not know in person, e.g. ''ngange ka loging meng-da'' "I heard he is sleeping"
| ''iriji'' || in the middle of, inside ||  
|-
|-
| ''ba'' || "if" || indicates the conditional, e.g. ''yi ewang ba-da'' "if you are going".
| ''waz'' || in front of, before ||  
|}
|}


===Postpositions===
===Derivation===
===Derivation===
Derivation is carried out using a number of suffixes and independent particles, and by compounding.
Derivation is carried out using a number of suffixes and independent particles, and by compounding.
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{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! style="width: 90px; " |Suffix
! style="width: 90px; " |Suffix
! style="width: 300px; " |Use
! style="width: 350px; " |Use
! style="width: 300px;" |Example
! style="width: 350px;" |Example
|-
|-
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Adjectives
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Adjectives
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-chi''  
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-chi''  
| style="text-align:left;" | of, like, pertaining to
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'of, like, pertaining to; full of, covered with'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''buyachi'' 'feminine, female'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''buyachi'' "feminine, female" (''buya'' "woman"), ''busochi'' "shitty" (''buso'' "dirt, shit")
|-
| (verbs) characterised by the action, '-y', '-ing'
| ''ibiichi'' "moving, full of motion, kinetic"
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-i''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'having the characteristics of'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eechii'' "sweet" (''eechi'' "honey")
|-
| (verbs) perfective participle
| ''inuai'' "said" (''inua'' "say")
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-jing''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'resembling', '-ish, -like'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''ajjing'' "man-like" (''az'' "man")
|-  
|-  
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-fu''
| (adjective) somewhat, '-ish'
| style="text-align:left;" | full of, covered with, made of
| ''dodourijing'' "reddish" (''dodouri'' "red")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''uzefu'' 'golden'
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-king''
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-king''
| style="text-align:left;" | of, like, pertaining to
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'of, relating to'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Burunking'' 'of Burung'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Burunking'' "of Burung"
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-oi''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'tending to, fond of'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''aratoi'' "gluttonous" (''arato'' "food")
|-
| (verbs) 'tending to'
| ''neilungoi'' "needy, wanting, unsatisfied" (''neilung'' "want)
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-oi''
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-ri''  
| style="text-align:left;" | tending to, fond of
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) forms colour adjectives, materials, '-en'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''aratoi'' 'gluttonous'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''dodouri'' "red" (''dodoi'' "blood"), ''eziri'' "made of stone" (''ezi'' "stone")
|-
|-
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Nouns
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Nouns
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-bua''
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-bua''
| style="text-align:left;" | collective, abstract
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) collective, abstract, '-hood'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bidebua'' 'route'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''gyombua'' "people, population; humanity" (''gyong'' "person")
|-
| (adjectives) collective, 'the ~, ~ ones'
| ''ipushoibua'' "wise ones" (''ipushoi'' "wise")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-daz''  
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-daz''  
| style="text-align:left;" | person or thing from
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) person or thing from (often analogical); language
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eshayodaz'' 'foreigner' (lit. sea-dweller)
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eshayodaz'' 'foreigner' (''eshayo'' "sea"), ''Inlandaz'' "English person, English language" (''Inlang'' "England").
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-do''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) pejorative
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bazedo'' "mocking laughter" (''baze'' "laughter")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-do''
| (noun) false, pseudo-; used to extend the metaphorical meaning of nouns
| style="text-align:left;" | pejorative
| ''beiwando'' "leg (of table), support" (''beiwang'' "leg")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''izido'' 'mocking laughter'
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-ko''
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-iri''  
| style="text-align:left;" | instrument, person connected with
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) thing connected with, found near
| style="text-align:left;" | ''onuuko'' 'goatherder'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''yipuiri'' "glove" (''yipu'' "hand")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-le''
| (verbs) abstract or concrete, instance of an action
| style="text-align:left;" | agent
| ''yangiri'' "eating, meal" (''yang'' "eat")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''erole'' 'killer'
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-ki''  
| style="text-align:left;" | (adjectives) concrete noun
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bixiki'' "living thing" (''bixi'' "alive")
|-
| (nouns) extending the sense of the noun, creating concrete from abstract nouns
| ''haaki'' "lucky charm, talisman" (''haz' "luck, fortune")
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-ko''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) instrument, person connected with, office, occupation
| style="text-align:left;" | ''goudeko'' "ploughman" (''goude'' "plough")
|-
| (verbs) office, occupation
| ''iniiko'' "hunter" (''inis'' "hunt")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-no''
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-no''
| style="text-align:left;" | diminutive (often pejorative)
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) diminutive (often pejorative)
| style="text-align:left;" | ''ano'' 'coward'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''ano'' "coward" (''az'' "man")
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-sho''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns, anim.) augmentative
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Amasho'' "mother goddess"
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-te''  
| style="text-align:left;" | (adjectives) abstracts, states
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bixite'' "life" (''bixi'' "alive")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-pung''
| (verbs) abstracts, states
| style="text-align:left;" | abstracts states, conditions
| ''oneekonte'' "patience" (''oneekong'' "be patient")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''buchipung'' 'smallness'
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-te''
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-teng''
| style="text-align:left;" | continual or chronic states
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns, inan.) augmentative
| style="text-align:left;" | ''izite'' 'sickness'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''yiteng'' "town" (''yi'' "settlement")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-to''
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-to''
| style="text-align:left;" | diminutive
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) diminutive
| style="text-align:left;" | ''hizito'' 'piglet'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''hizito'' 'piglet' (''hizi'' "pig")
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-zoi''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) collective, group
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eshezoi'' "settlement" (''eshe'' "house")
|-
| (adjectives) collective, group
| ''gaatezoi'' "young ones, youths"
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-zoi''
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-zung''  
| style="text-align:left;" | collective, group
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) possessor of
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eshezoi'' 'settlement'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''ombazung'' "parent" (''omba'' "child")
|}
|}


===Syntax===
===Syntax===
===Summary of Particles===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="120px;" | <big>a</big>
| colspan="2;" | allative "to, towards, up to"
|-
| Noun || width="200px;" | ''az az''  || width="200px;" | Example
|-
! <big>au</big>
| colspan="2;" | interrogative, precedes auxiliary verb
|-
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example
|-
! <big>az</big>
| colspan="2;" | nominative
|-
| Noun || Example || Example
|-
! <big>ba<sup>1</sup></big>
| colspan="2;" | topicaliser
|-
| Noun || Example || Example
|-
! <big>ba<sup>2</sup></big>
| colspan="2;" | conditional "if"
|-
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example
|-
! <big>chi</big>
| colspan="2;" | ablative, "from, off, of, through"
|-
| Noun || Example || Example
|-
! <big>eng</big>
| colspan="2;" | genitive, "of"
|-
| Noun || Example || Example
|-
! <big>gang</big>
| colspan="2;" | locative, "in, on, at"
|-
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example
|-
! <big>ha</big>
| colspan="2;" | instrumental, "by, with", "in" (with languages)
|-
| Noun (language) || ''Lating ha'' || "in Latin"
|-
! <big>heez</big>
| colspan="2;" | "across, over, beyond, past"
|-
| Noun || Example || Example
|-
! <big>ke</big>
| colspan="2;" | accusative
|-
| Noun || Example || Example
|-
! <big>meng</big>
| colspan="2;" | hearsay, precedes auxiliary verb
|-
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example
|-
! <big>ni</big>
| colspan="2;" | dative, "to" (recipient), "for" (purpose)
|-
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example
|-
! <big>ta</big>
| colspan="2;" | comitative, "with", "and"
|-
| Noun || ''ni az ni eng buya ta egong da'' || "I live with my wife"
|-
| Noun || ||
|-
! <big>te</big>
| colspan="2;" | uncertainty, precedes auxiliary verb
|-
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example


<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
|}


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
(see also [[https://linguifex.com/wiki/Is_Burunking/Vocabulary | Vocabulary]])
====Verbal Roots====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Root !! style="width: 350px;" | Meanings !! style="width: 100px;" | Stem !! style="width: 100px;" | Perfective
|-
| '''BII''' || move; travel; run, flow || ''ibii'' || ''ibiyi''
|-
| '''GANG''' || go up, ascend; grow; improve  || ''egang'' || ''egangi''
|-
| '''WASH''' || go down, descend; fall; shrink; deteriorate || ''ewash'' || ''ewashi''
|-
| '''SURU''' || go past, pass; exceed; change state || ''isuru'' || ''isurui''
|-
| '''RO''' || touch, come into contact; mention || ''ero'' || ''eroi''
|-
| '''TOZ''' || move towards, come, approach; arrive, reach; attain || ''etoz'' || ''etozi''
|-
| '''US''' || move away, go || ''yus'' || ''yushi''
|-
| '''XAZ''' || move into, enter; penetrate || ''exaz'' || ''exazi''
|-
| '''UKI''' || move out of, leave, exit || ''yuki'' || ''yukii''
|-
| '''GONG''' || remain; stay, wait; dwell; persist, continue || ''egong'' || ''egongi''
|-
| '''AZ''' || sit; be located, situated; abide passively || ''yaz'' || ''yazi''
|-
| '''SUANG''' || lie; be located; spread, extend || ''isuang'' || ''isuangi''
|-
| '''YEKI''' || stand; be located; abide actively || ''eyeki'' || ''eyekii''
|-
| '''EHANG''' || be, exist || ''yehang'' || ''yehangi''
|-
| '''KING''' || heat, cook || ''iking'' || ''ikingi''
|-
| '''RESH''' || constrict, narrow, tighten; shrink || ''eresh'' || ''ereshi''
|-
| '''XOZ''' || begin; beget, produce, create, conceive || ''exoz'' || ''exozi''
|-
| '''JI''' || appear; seem, look like || ''iji'' || ''ijii''
|-
| '''LU''' || die; cease, stop; break || ''ilu'' || ''ilui''
|-
| '''LUAZ''' || spread, scatter, disperse || ''eluaz'' || ''eluazi''
|-
| '''LUNG''' || have; own, possess; use || ''ilung'' || ''ilungi''
|-
| '''BA''' || incise, cut, scratch; carve; mark || ''eba'' || ''ebai''
|-
| '''BANG''' || give; offer, pay; provide || ''ebang'' || ''ebangi''
|-
| '''BEI''' || come together, congregate, assemble; swarm, herd || ''ebei'' || ''ebeyi''
|-
| '''GOS''' || throw; shoot; cast; release || ''egos'' || ''egoshi''
|-
| '''LAZ''' || divide, split, separate || ''elaz'' || ''elazi''
|-
| '''AS''' || step; pace, tread; measure || ''yas'' || ''yashi''
|-
| '''GING''' || do, act; make || ''iging'' || ''igingi''
|-
| '''NUA''' || speak, say; make noise || ''inua'' || ''inuai''
|-
| '''ZUNG''' || expel; defecate; emit, reject || ''izung'' || ''izungi''
|-
| '''ANG''' || eat, consume; take in; receive, accept || ''yang'' || ''yangi''
|-
| '''GAS''' || get; obtain, receive; understand || ''egas'' || ''egashi''
|-
| '''KASH''' || learn, comprehend || ''ekash'' || ''ekashi''
|-
| '''PUSH''' || perceive; know; sense || ''ipush'' || ''ipushi''
|-
| '''SHI''' || think, consider, regard; view; judge, measure || ''ishi'' || ''ishii''
|}
====Verbs of Motion====
Verbal roots of motion define direction but not means or manner, i.e. there are roots meaning 'go', 'go up', 'go past' etc. but not 'walk', 'fly', 'ride', 'rush'. To describe either means or manner, compound verbs are used.
Means of motion is usually indicated by an adverb ending in ''-(e)s'', derived from
* a noun denoting the physical method of propulsion
:: ''wengeepii'' "walk, go by foot" < ''wenges'' "by foot" + ''BII''
:: ''heujiipii'' "ride, go by horse" < ''heujis'' "by horse" + ''BII''
:: ''ferowupii'' "sail, go by boat" < ''ferous'' "by boat" + ''BII''
* a noun denoting the medium through which movement occurs
:: ''uzeepii'' "swim etc, go by water" < ''uzes'' "by water" + ''BII''
:: ''urushiipii'' "fly, go by air" < ''urushis'' "by sky" + ''BII''
:: ''bideepii'' "go by road" < ''bides'' "by road" + ''BII''
Manner of motion is denoted either by
* an adverb in ''-ki'', derived from an adjective
:: ''laitekkibii'' "move quickly" < ''laitekki'' "quickly"
:: ''lambakibii'' "move slowly" < ''lambaki'' "slowly"
* a noun, with the meaning "to move as or like..."
:: ''urujibii'' "move drunkenly" < ''uruji'' "drunk person"
:: ''bumibii'' "move like a baby" < ''bumi'' "baby"
:: ''heujitobii'' "move like a foal" < ''heujito'' "foal"
These same methods can be employed with other roots denoting movement to describe both directed and means or manner, e.g:
:: ''wengeekang'' "climb, ascend by foot" < ''wenges'' + ''GANG''
:: ''uzeewash'' "sink, descend through water" < ''uzes'' + ''WASH''
:: ''laitekkitoz'' "rush towards, charge" < ''laitekki'' + ''TOZ''
:: ''urujixaz'' "enter drunkenly" < ''uruji'' + ''XAZ''
====Kinship Terms====
====Kinship Terms====
Kinship terms are relatively straightforward in Is Burunking, showing fewer distinctions than in English. Within the family structure there are three degrees of proximity: the first is an individual's direct bloodline, both ancestors and direct descendants; the second includes closely related blood relatives (aunts, nephews etc.); and the third any more distantly related blood relatives or relatives by marriage. Within these three vertical groups, distinctions are then made by generation, and, in older generations only by gender.
In Burungian society, each individual belongs to a broad group known as an ''yenu'' "tribe", largely defined by adherence to a particular chief and worship of a tutelary deity.  Within that tribe they belong to a family group called an ''as'' "clan", the members of which claim matrilineal descent from a pair of common ancestors known as the ''atasho'' (male) and ''amasho'' (female). A person belonging to the same clan is called a ''beraako'', whilst anyone beyond the clan group is an ''ase''.
 
Somewhat distinct from the clan group is an individual's close family group, known as ''angazoi'' "kinsmen". While a person traces his clan group as a vertical line, descending through a series of individuals, his ''angazoi'' is more like a network extending in every direction. Anyone who shares a common great-grandfather (''araato'') or great-grandmother (''ashoto'') with a person is considered his ''angaba'' "relative, kinsman". Within this family group there are then three degrees of proximity, which restrict such things as marriage and are relevant in the inheritance of property: the '''''hayabing'''''  line, the '''''yipuaute''''' line and the '''''wengaute''''' line.
 
=====''Hayabing''=====
The ''hayabing'' line (literally "ancestors-descendents"), also called the ''buruaute'' or "head line", is the primary family line including a persons direct ancestors and descendents. Marriage and sexual relationships are strictly prohibited within the ''hayabing''.
 
* ''hayaba'' any direct ancestor preceding great-grandparents
* ''nanaba'' "great-grandmother"
* ''waraapa'' "great-grandfather"
* ''ashoba'' "grandmother"
* ''araapa'' "grandfather"
* ''ama'' "mother"
* ''ata'' "father"
* ''ayaba'' "daughter" (teenage or older)
* ''xemba'' "son" (teenage or older)
* ''omba'' "child" (preteen or ''iriji'')
* ''yoba'' "grandchild"
* ''yobato'' "great-grandchild"
* ''bimba'' any direct descendant following great-grandchild.
 
Notes:
* Most familial terms end with the suffix ''-ba'' and are derived (sometimes irregularly) from ordinary parts of speech, e.g. ''xemba'' "son" < ''xini'' "boy, lad", ''waraapa'' "great-grandfather" < ''waras'' "old man".
* Distinctions between maternal and paternal ancestors are made with the adjectives ''amaking'' "maternal" and ''ataking'' "paternal", e.g. ''amaking nanaba'' "maternal great-grandmother".
* Disctinctions of gender may be made with ''hayaba'', ''yoba, yobato'' and ''bimba'' with the adjectives ''acchi'', ''buyachi'' and ''iriji'', e.g. ''acchi yoba'' "grandson".
 
=====''Yipuaute''=====
The ''yipuaute'' (literally "hand line") is the secondary line and includes a person's siblings and their children, their spouse and their spouse's parents and children, and their parent's siblings or spouses. Half-siblings are not distinguished from full siblings as they still contain one parent's blood. Step-parents are considered identical in relation to parents-in-law and step-children to children-in-law. Marriage within this line is prohibited (except in the case of spouses), but sexual relationships are not.
 
* ''xeba'' "aunt, foster-mother"
* ''hoyaba'' "uncle, foster-father"
* ''waba'' "mother-in-law, step-mother, mother of half-sibling"
* ''aneriba'' "father-in-law, step-father, father of half-sibling"
* ''az, abba'' "husband"
* ''buya, buyaba'' "wife"
* ''neba'' "older sibling"
* ''azeba'' "younger sibling"
* ''ezang'' "daughter-in-law, step-daughter"
* ''angane'' "older cousin, foster-sibling, or other relative of same generation"
* ''angeepa'' "younger cousin, foster-sibling, or other relative of same generation"
 
 
 


{| class="wikitable" width="100%;"
{| class="wikitable" width="100%;" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
|-
| width="25%;" | || width="25%;" | || width="25%;"  | || style="background: pink;" width="25%;"  | ''nanaba'' <br /> <small> great-grandmother</small> <br /> ''waraapa'' <br /> <small> great-grandfather</small>
|-
|-
! width="10%;" | !! width="30%;" | 1st Degree !! width="30%;" | 2nd Degree !! width="30%;" | 3rd Degree
| || || style="background: pink;" | ''ashoba'' <br /> <small>grandmother</small> <br /> ''araapa'' <br /> <small>grandfather</small>
| style="background: lemonchiffon;" rowspan="2;" | <small>older relative</small>
|-
|-
! Gen. +2 
| || style="background: pink;" | ''ama'' <br /> <small>mother</small> <br /> ''ata'' <br /> <small>father</small>
| style="text-align:center;" | '''grandfather:''' ''aras'' <br/> '''grandmother:''' ''asho'' || || style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2;" | '''other older collateral relative:''' <br/> ''asaba''
| style="background: moccasin;" | ''xeba'' <br /> <small>aunt</small> <br /> ''hoyoba'' <br /> <small>uncle</small>
|-
|-
! Gen +1
| style="background: pink;" | '''EGO'''  
| style="text-align:center;" | '''father:''' ''yata'' <br/> '''mother:''' ''ama'' ||style="text-align:center;" | '''parent's brother:''' ''xoba'' <br/> '''parent's sister:''' ''xeba'' <br/> '''parent's sibling (''iriji''):''' ''hanauba'' <br/> '''father-in-law, step-father:''' ''neba'' <br/> '''mother-in-law, step-mother:''' ''aneepa''
| style="background: pink;" | ''neba'' <br /> <small>older sibling</small> <br /> ''azeba'' <br /> <small>younger sibling</small>
| style="background: moccasin;" | ''angane'' <br /> <small>older cousin</small> <br /> ''angeepa'' <br /> <small>younger cousin</small>
| style="background: lemonchiffon;" |
|-
|-
! Gen. 0
| style="background: pink;" | ''ayaba'' <br /> <small>daughter</small> <br /> ''xemba'' <br /> <small>son</small> <br /> ''omba'' <br /> <small>child</small>
| style="text-align:center;" | '''EGO:'''  ''NI'' || style="text-align:center;" | '''husband:''' ''az, xengaz'' <br/> '''wife:''' ''buya, xengaz'' <br/> '''older sibling:''' ''angane'' <br/> '''younger sibling:''' ''azeba'' || style="text-align:center;" | '''other same-generation relative:''' <br/> ''angade''
| style="background: moccasin;" | <small>niece, nephew</small>
| colspan="2;" rowspan="3;" style="background: lemonchiffon;" |
|-
|-
! Gen. -1
| style="background: pink;" | ''yoba'' <br /> <small>grandchild</small>
| style="text-align:center;" | '''child:''' ''omba'' || style="text-align:center;" | '''nephew/niece:''' ''yoba'' <br/> '''step-child, son/daughter-in-law:''' ''ezang'' || style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2;" | '''other younger collateral relative:''' <br/> ''xuni''
| rowspan="2;" style="background: lemonchiffon;" |
|-
|-
! Gen. -2
| style="background: pink;" | ''yobato'' <br /> <small>great-grandchild</small>
| style="text-align:center;" | '''grandchild:'''  ''xemba''||
|
|}
|}


Older generations in the direct line (great-grandparents etc.) are called ''waraba'' regardless of sex or generation, a word roughly equivalent to "ancestor". The words ''araato'' and ''ashoto'' can be used for "great-grandfather" and "great-grandmother" respectively. The primary male ancestor of one's kinship group is known as the ''heuji'' and the female one as ''beuz''. Direct descendants below "grandchild" are called ''xembato''.
====Personal Names====
Burunking personal names consist of a '''family name''' (''aaxeng'') and a '''given name''' (''xeng''). Family names are derived from an individual's clan and remain the same throughout a person's life. Given names consist of two types: a) a childhood name conferred by parents at birth or early childhood (''ayaxeng''), and b) an adult name conferred at puberty by community elders (''xensho'').
 
=====''Family Names''=====
Family names are generally derived from the name of the ''amasho'' (female ancestor) of a clan, usually with one of the suffixes ''-eng'', ''-iri'', ''-ko'', ''-zoi'' and, rarely, ''-daz''. For example, a descendant of ''Endazibya'' might be called ''Endazibyeng'' or ''Endazibiri''. More often, a hypocoristic form of the name is used, e.g. ''Endashiri'' or ''Daziko''.
 
Some clans - mainly those of higher status - take their name from a specific historical event or a chosen characteristic, e.g. ''Laitezuenzoi'' "swift-footed ones", ''Buzugozzoi'' "solid in battle".
 
Family names are not changed on marriage. Children will usually adopt the name of their mother.
 
=====''Childhood Names''=====
Childhood names are usually affectionate, descriptive names indicating some physical characteristic or quality. For example, a child born with dark hair or complexion might be called ''Beuto'' "little dark one", a fair child might be called ''Oijing'' "like the sun", a happy child might be called ''Izizoi'' "fond of smiling". To western ears some of these names might seem rude or uncouth, denoting apparently negative or embarrassing features according to our own standards, e.g. ''Ishuno'' "little blind one", ''Beretteng'' "big ears", ''Xabeuno'' "little pot belly". There are few taboos concerning such names, except where they are deemed to confer bad luck or are considered to diminish the status of the family. A handful of words are not considered appropriate, e.g. ''dedez'' "beautiful, handsome" is used only of adults.
 
Since prepubescent children are considered to be ''iriji'', names do not differ between physically male and female children, except in cases where they refer to specifically male or female properties, e.g. ''Hekyuto'' "little penis" or ''Heenjing'' "bull-like".
 
Childhood names essentially work like nicknames in the sense that they are designed to be specific to an individual and affectionate. As such, they often continue to be used even when the child no longer resembles the description. In some cases, however, names are changed naturally to more appropriate descriptions. For example, a small chubby baby named ''Lujito'' "little chubby one" might grow tall and slim and be renamed ''Xigojjing'' "rod-like".
 
Once a child has reached adulthood and undergone the relevant rites, it is considered rude to refer to a person by their childhood name, except for close family members and close friends. In some cases an individual will forego their childhood name entirely.
 
=====''Adult Names''=====
Adult names are conferred as part of the series of rites that initiate a child into adulthood. They are usually composed of two elements, which are symbolic of an individual's qualities and expected role in society. The two elements are always combined into a single word, but they may or may not make sense as a unit. For example, the name ''Endazibya'' above is derived from ''endaz'' "strength, power" and ''ibya'' "river", and may be interpreted as a whole meaning "power of a river".
 
There is effectively no restriction to the elements that may be used to create a given name, but there are general themes to words used and certain common elements. The elements may be nouns or adjectives and in most cases there is no restriction on the order in which they appear.
 
* '''Topographical features:''' ''binji'' "mountain", ''ibya'' "river", ''eshayo'' "sea", ''laze'' "meadow"
* '''Celestial:''' ''xaz'' "star", ''urushi'' "sky", ''yori'' "rain", ''oi'' "sun", ''oje'' "cloud", ''ye'' "moon", ''yai'' "wind", ''ibung'' "day", ''ba'' "night", ''nibu'' "winter", ''oda'' "summer"
* '''People:''' ''andosh'' "lord", ''andez'' "lady"
* '''Animals:''' ''heuji'' "horse", ''osho'' "wolf", ''heeng'' "bull", ''azang'' "eagle", ''erei'' "bee", ''uruho'' "dove", ''iji'' "ox", ''esang'' "stallion"
* '''Other:''' ''fu'' "fire", ''xing'' "oath, promise"
* '''Adjectives:''' ''dedez'' "beautiful, handsome", ''enji'' "great, large", ''furi'' "white, pure", ''funuz'' "wise", ''eregi'' "bright", ''laxa'' "calm, peaceful, gentle", ''xakong'' "deep", ''ong'' "good", ''goz'' "hard", ''beng'' "solemn", ''heni'' "careful, vigilant"
 
In some communities it is common for all children to the same parents or the same mother to have one element of their name in common. For example, a group of siblings may be called '''''Azang'''enji'', ''Oda'''azang''''', ''Nibu'''azang''''', '''''Azam'''funuz'' and '''''Azam'''beng''.
 
There are no clear distinctions made between masculine, feminine or ''iriji'' names. Semantically, certain elements are more common for certain genders:
* '''acchi''' names are more commonly associated with battle, physical strength and bravery. Male animals like ''heeng'' and ''esang'' are almost exclusively used for males, as are other masculine forms like ''andosh'' "lord".
* '''buyachi''' names are often
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