Is Burunking: Difference between revisions

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|name = Is Burunking
|name = Is Burunking
|nativename = Is
|nativename = Is
|pronunciation = [is]
|pronunciation = is
|creator = Neil Whalley
|creator = Neil Whalley
|region = Burung
|setting = North Atlantic ocean
|states = Burung
|states = Burung
|nation = Burung
|nation = Burung
|speakers = ?
|date =
|familycolor = Isolate
|familycolor = Isolate
|script       = [[w:Latin script|Latin script]] <br/> Hookozoi
|scripts       = * [[w:Latin script|Latin script]]
* Hookozoi
}}
}}


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! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Retroflex
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar
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! style="" |Nasal
! style="" |Nasal
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; m
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; m
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; n
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; n  
|
|
|  
|  
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ŋ
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ŋ
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| t &nbsp;&nbsp; d
| t &nbsp;&nbsp; d
|
|
| k &nbsp;&nbsp; g
|
|
|-
! style="" |Sibilant
|
| s &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| ɕ &nbsp;&nbsp; ʑ
|
|
| k &nbsp;&nbsp; g
|  
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Fricative
! style="" |Fricative
| ɸ &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| ɸ &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| s &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
|  
| ʃ &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| ç &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ʐ
| ç &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
|
|
| h &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| h &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
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|  
|  
|
|
| t͡ʃ &nbsp;&nbsp; d͡ʒ
| t͡ɕ &nbsp;&nbsp; d͡ʑ
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ɾ
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ɾ
|
|
|
|
|
|
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! style="" |Approximant
! style="" |Approximant
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; w
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; w
|
|
|
|
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; j
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; j
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|-
|-
! style="" |Lateral app.
! style="" |Lateral app.
|
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; l
| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; l
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|}
|}


Consonants generally do not occur in clusters, with some exceptions (see [[#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] below). Any consonant except a fricative may occur as a geminate word-internally.  
Consonants generally do not occur in clusters, with some exceptions (see [[#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] below). Any consonant except a fricative may occur as a geminate word-internally.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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|-
|-
! style="" |Close
! style="" |Close
| i
| ɨ
| u
| ʉ
|-
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
! style="" |Open-mid
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:: ''az'' 'man' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''acchi'' 'masculine'
:: ''az'' 'man' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''acchi'' 'masculine'
:: ''haaz'' 'old' + ''-ki'' (nominal) = ''haakki'' 'antique, relic'
:: ''haaz'' 'old' + ''-ki'' (nominal) = ''haakki'' 'antique, relic'
In some cases a word ending in a vowel + ''-i'' will alter to vowel + ''-u'' when a suffix or the second element of a compound begins with a consonant:
:: ''


Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings:
Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings:
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===Orthography===
===Orthography===
Is Burunking was originally written in a syllabary called ''hookozoi'', mainly carved into wood or, occasionally, stone.  
Is Burunking was originally written in a syllabary called ''hookozoi'', mainly carved into wood or, occasionally, stone.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!  !! a !! e !! i !! o !! u !! Ø
|-
! Ø
| a || e || i || o || u || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! y
| ya || ye || yi || yo || yu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! w
| wa || we || wi || wo || wu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! b
| ba || be || bi || bo || bu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! d
| da || de || ji || do || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! g
| ga || ge || gi || go || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! p
| pa || pe || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | || pu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! t
| ta || te || chi || to || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! k
| ka || ke || ki || ko || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! f
| fa || fe || fi || fo || fu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! h
| ha || he || style="background: lightgray;" | || ho || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! x
| xa || xe || xi || xo || xu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! s
| sa || se || style="background: lightgray;" | || so || su || s
|-
! sh
| sha || she || shi || sho || shu || sh
|-
! m
| ma || me || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | || mu || rowspan="2;" | m/n
|-
! n
| na || ne || ni || no || nu
|-
! ng
| nga || nge || ngi || ngo || style="background: lightgray;" | || ng
|-
! l
| la || le || li || lo || lu || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! r
| ra || re || ri || ro || ru || style="background: lightgray;" |
|-
! z
| za || ze || zi || zo || zu || z
|}
 
 


When the language was initially discovered by Europeans the Greek alphabet was used in its transcription, but later studies preferred to use the Latin script, which is still used today.
When the language was initially discovered by Europeans the Greek alphabet was used in its transcription, but later studies preferred to use the Latin script, which is still used today.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable"
! style="width: 90px; " |Graph
! style="width: 90px; " |Graph
! style="width: 90px; "  |IPA
! style="width: 90px; "  |IPA
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|}
|}


In word or syllable initial position the sequences ''ii, uu'' are written ''yi, wu''. The glide /j/ is always written ''y'' but /w/ is written ''u'' following a consonant and ''w'' syllable initially.  
In word or syllable initial position the sequences ''ii, uu'' are written ''yi, wu''. The glide /j/ is always written ''y'' but /w/ is written ''u'' following a consonant and ''w'' syllable initially.


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
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Burunking verbs are usually composed of two elements: the '''main verb''' which contains the semantic information and an '''auxiliary verb''' that contains most of the conjugation information. Verbs may be conjugated according to the following criteria:
Burunking verbs are usually composed of two elements: the '''main verb''' which contains the semantic information and an '''auxiliary verb''' that contains most of the conjugation information. Verbs may be conjugated according to the following criteria:
* Tense: present or non-present
* Tense: past or non-past
* Mood: indicative, hypothetical, hortative, imperative
* Mood: indicative, hypothetical, hortative, imperative
* Aspect: imperfective or perfective
* Aspect: imperfective or perfective
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* an '''adjective''' to denote various senses of being or becoming the quality of the adjective, or to denote the subject's opinion depending on the verb used, ''furitoz'' "become white" (< ''furi'' "white" + ''TOZ'' "come"), ''onshi'' "like, approve" (< ''ong'' "good" + ''SHI'' "think, consider").
* an '''adjective''' to denote various senses of being or becoming the quality of the adjective, or to denote the subject's opinion depending on the verb used, ''furitoz'' "become white" (< ''furi'' "white" + ''TOZ'' "come"), ''onshi'' "like, approve" (< ''ong'' "good" + ''SHI'' "think, consider").
* an '''adverb''' indicating the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''wengeepii'' "walk" (< ''wenges'' "by foot" + ''BII'' "move"), ''laitekkibii'' "move quickly" (< ''laitekki'' "quickly" + ''BII'').
* an '''adverb''' indicating the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''wengeepii'' "walk" (< ''wenges'' "by foot" + ''BII'' "move"), ''laitekkibii'' "move quickly" (< ''laitekki'' "quickly" + ''BII'').
=====Perfective=====
Main verbs are considered to be imperfective, generally denoting incomplete or non-finite actions. In order to indicate a completed action the perfective suffix ''-i'' is added to the verb, e.g. ''yangi'' "ate", ''enaroi'' "molested", ''burushigoshi'' "threw a spear", ''ibiyi'' "moved".
====Auxiliary Verbs====
Auxiliary verbs carry most of the information regarding tense, mood and valency in the verb form. Each auxiliary is based on one of twelve particles, four intransitive, four transitive and four causative, to indicate past and non-past indicative, hypothetical and hortative moods. In addition, there is an imperative mood, created from the main verb alone. The table below indicates the particles with the primary uses.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Function !! Intransitive !! Transitive !! Causative !! Usage with Imperfective or Perfective (excl. Causative)
|-
| Non-Past|| ''da ''|| ''zu'' || ''dara'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at the time of speaking or a future, e.g. ''yang da'' "eats, is eating, will eat".  <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at the time of speaking, creating a near-past tense, e.g. ''yangi da'' "has eaten".
|-
| Past || ''heng'' || ''fong'' || ''herang'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at some past time (past progressive), e.g. ''yang heng'' "was eating" <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at some past time (remote-past), e.g. ''yangi heng'' "had eaten".
|-
| Hypothetical || ''li'' || ''lu'' || ''lerai'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an ongoing hypothetical action, e.g. ''yang li'' "may be eating, may eat". <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes a completed hypothetical action, e.g. ''yangi li'' "may have eaten".
|-
| Hortative || ''bii'' || ''byo'' || ''berai'' || Used only with the '''Impf.''' to express a wish or an entreaty, e.g. ''yang bii'' "let's eat"
|-
| Imperative || -- || -- || -- || Used only with the '''Impf.''' to give a direct command, e.g. ''yang!'' "eat!"
|}
To these base particles, a number of prefixes may be added, in reverse order:
* The '''negative''' prefix is ''ei-'', which becomes ''-i-'' after another prefix and always causes a following ''d-'' or ''b-'' to devoice, e.g. ''yang eita'' "doesn't eat".
* The '''conditional''' prefix is ''ba-'', equivalent to "if" in English, e.g. ''yangi baheng'' "if he has eaten". The negative form is ''bai-'', e.g. ''baita'' "if it is not".
* The '''modal''' prefixes are:
** ''nei-'' denoting desire or wish to do something, e.g. ''yang neida'' "want to eat". The negative form is ''neiki-'', e.g. ''yang neikita'' "don't want to eat";
** ''nau-'' denoting ability or possibility, e.g. ''Inlanko ke eiranging nauzu'' "can read". The negative form is ''nawi-''.
** ''bez-'' denoting necessity, e.g. ''yang bedda'' "need to eat"


===Postpositions===
===Postpositions===
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{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! style="width: 90px; " |Suffix
! style="width: 90px; " |Suffix
! style="width: 300px; " |Use
! style="width: 350px; " |Use
! style="width: 300px;" |Example
! style="width: 350px;" |Example
|-
|-
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Adjectives
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Adjectives
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-chi''  
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-chi''  
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'of, like, pertaining to; full of, covered with'
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'of, like, pertaining to; full of, covered with'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''buyachi'' "feminine, female" (''buya'' "woman"), ''busochi'' "shitty"
| style="text-align:left;" | ''buyachi'' "feminine, female" (''buya'' "woman"), ''busochi'' "shitty" (''buso'' "dirt, shit")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-dazi''
| (verbs) characterised by the action, '-y', '-ing'
| style="text-align:left;" | (noun) 'of a person/thing from, -ian, -ese'  
| ''ibiichi'' "moving, full of motion, kinetic"
| style="text-align:left;" | ''binjidazi'' 'of a mountain-dweller'
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-i''  
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-i''  
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'having the characteristics of' <br/> (verbs) perfective participle
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'having the characteristics of'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eechii'' "sweet" (''eechi'' "honey") <br/> ''inuai'' "said" (''inua'' "say")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eechii'' "sweet" (''eechi'' "honey")  
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-jing''  
| (verbs) perfective participle
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'resembling' (often pejorative)
| ''inuai'' "said" (''inua'' "say")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''ajing'' "man-like" (''az'' "man")
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-jing''  
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'resembling', '-ish, -like'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''ajjing'' "man-like" (''az'' "man")
|-  
|-  
| (adjective) somewhat, '-ish'
| ''dodourijing'' "reddish" (''dodouri'' "red")
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-king''
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-king''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'of, relating to'
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'of, relating to'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Burunking'' "of Burung"
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Burunking'' "of Burung"
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-oi''
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-oi''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) tending to, fond of
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'tending to, fond of'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''aratoi'' "gluttonous" (''arato'' "food")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''aratoi'' "gluttonous" (''arato'' "food")
|-
| (verbs) 'tending to'
| ''neilungoi'' "needy, wanting, unsatisfied" (''neilung'' "want)
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-ri''  
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-ri''  
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) forms colour adjectives
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) forms colour adjectives, materials, '-en'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''odouri'' "red" (''odoi'' "blood")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''dodouri'' "red" (''dodoi'' "blood"), ''eziri'' "made of stone" (''ezi'' "stone")
|-
|-
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Nouns
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Nouns
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-bua''
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-bua''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) collective, abstract
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) collective, abstract, '-hood'
| style="text-align:left;" | ''gyombua'' "people, population; humanity" (''gyong'' "person")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''gyombua'' "people, population; humanity" (''gyong'' "person")
|-
| (adjectives) collective, 'the ~, ~ ones'
| ''ipushoibua'' "wise ones" (''ipushoi'' "wise")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-daz''  
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-daz''  
| style="text-align:left;" | (noun) person or thing from
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) person or thing from (often analogical); language
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eshayodaz'' 'foreigner' (''eshayo'' "sea")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eshayodaz'' 'foreigner' (''eshayo'' "sea"), ''Inlandaz'' "English person, English language" (''Inlang'' "England").
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-do''
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-do''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) pejorative
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) pejorative
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bazedo'' "mocking laughter" (''baze'' "laughter")  
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bazedo'' "mocking laughter" (''baze'' "laughter")
|-
| (noun) false, pseudo-; used to extend the metaphorical meaning of nouns
| ''beiwando'' "leg (of table), support" (''beiwang'' "leg")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-iri''  
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-iri''  
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) thing connected with, found near
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) thing connected with, found near
| style="text-align:left;" | ''yipuiri'' "glove" (''yipu'' "hand")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''yipuiri'' "glove" (''yipu'' "hand")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-ki''  
| (verbs) abstract or concrete, instance of an action
| ''yangiri'' "eating, meal" (''yang'' "eat")
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-ki''  
| style="text-align:left;" | (adjectives) concrete noun
| style="text-align:left;" | (adjectives) concrete noun
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bixiki'' "living thing" (''bixi'' "alive")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bixiki'' "living thing" (''bixi'' "alive")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-ko''
| (nouns) extending the sense of the noun, creating concrete from abstract nouns
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) instrument, person connected with <br/> (verbs) agent, instrument, tool
| ''haaki'' "lucky charm, talisman" (''haz' "luck, fortune")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''goudeko'' "ploughman" (''goude'' "plough") <br/> ''exooko'' "creator"
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-ko''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) instrument, person connected with, office, occupation
| style="text-align:left;" | ''goudeko'' "ploughman" (''goude'' "plough")
|-
| (verbs) office, occupation
| ''iniiko'' "hunter" (''inis'' "hunt")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-no''
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-no''
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| style="text-align:left;" | ''ano'' "coward" (''az'' "man")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''ano'' "coward" (''az'' "man")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-te''  
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-sho''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns, anim.) augmentative
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Amasho'' "mother goddess"
|-
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-te''  
| style="text-align:left;" | (adjectives) abstracts, states
| style="text-align:left;" | (adjectives) abstracts, states
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bixite'' "life" (''bixi'' "alive")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bixite'' "life" (''bixi'' "alive")
|-
| (verbs) abstracts, states
| ''oneekonte'' "patience" (''oneekong'' "be patient")
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-teng''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns, inan.) augmentative
| style="text-align:left;" | ''yiteng'' "town" (''yi'' "settlement")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-to''
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-to''
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| style="text-align:left;" | ''hizito'' 'piglet' (''hizi'' "pig")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''hizito'' 'piglet' (''hizi'' "pig")
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-zoi''
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-zoi''
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) collective, group
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) collective, group
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eshezoi'' "settlement" (''eshe'' "house")
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eshezoi'' "settlement" (''eshe'' "house")
|-
| (adjectives) collective, group
| ''gaatezoi'' "young ones, youths"
|-
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-zung''  
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-zung''  
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==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
(see also [[https://linguifex.com/wiki/Is_Burunking/Vocabulary | Vocabulary]])
====Verbal Roots====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Root !! style="width: 350px;" | Meanings !! style="width: 100px;" | Stem !! style="width: 100px;" | Perfective
|-
| '''BII''' || move; travel; run, flow || ''ibii'' || ''ibiyi''
|-
| '''GANG''' || go up, ascend; grow; improve  || ''egang'' || ''egangi''
|-
| '''WASH''' || go down, descend; fall; shrink; deteriorate || ''ewash'' || ''ewashi''
|-
| '''SURU''' || go past, pass; exceed; change state || ''isuru'' || ''isurui''
|-
| '''RO''' || touch, come into contact; mention || ''ero'' || ''eroi''
|-
| '''TOZ''' || move towards, come, approach; arrive, reach; attain || ''etoz'' || ''etozi''
|-
| '''US''' || move away, go || ''yus'' || ''yushi''
|-
| '''XAZ''' || move into, enter; penetrate || ''exaz'' || ''exazi''
|-
| '''UKI''' || move out of, leave, exit || ''yuki'' || ''yukii''
|-
| '''GONG''' || remain; stay, wait; dwell; persist, continue || ''egong'' || ''egongi''
|-
| '''AZ''' || sit; be located, situated; abide passively || ''yaz'' || ''yazi''
|-
| '''SUANG''' || lie; be located; spread, extend || ''isuang'' || ''isuangi''
|-
| '''YEKI''' || stand; be located; abide actively || ''eyeki'' || ''eyekii''
|-
| '''EHANG''' || be, exist || ''yehang'' || ''yehangi''
|-
| '''KING''' || heat, cook || ''iking'' || ''ikingi''
|-
| '''RESH''' || constrict, narrow, tighten; shrink || ''eresh'' || ''ereshi''
|-
| '''XOZ''' || begin; beget, produce, create, conceive || ''exoz'' || ''exozi''
|-
| '''JI''' || appear; seem, look like || ''iji'' || ''ijii''
|-
| '''LU''' || die; cease, stop; break || ''ilu'' || ''ilui''
|-
| '''LUAZ''' || spread, scatter, disperse || ''eluaz'' || ''eluazi''
|-
| '''LUNG''' || have; own, possess; use || ''ilung'' || ''ilungi''
|-
| '''BA''' || incise, cut, scratch; carve; mark || ''eba'' || ''ebai''
|-
| '''BANG''' || give; offer, pay; provide || ''ebang'' || ''ebangi''
|-
| '''BEI''' || come together, congregate, assemble; swarm, herd || ''ebei'' || ''ebeyi''
|-
| '''GOS''' || throw; shoot; cast; release || ''egos'' || ''egoshi''
|-
| '''LAZ''' || divide, split, separate || ''elaz'' || ''elazi''
|-
| '''AS''' || step; pace, tread; measure || ''yas'' || ''yashi''
|-
| '''GING''' || do, act; make || ''iging'' || ''igingi''
|-
| '''NUA''' || speak, say; make noise || ''inua'' || ''inuai''
|-
| '''ZUNG''' || expel; defecate; emit, reject || ''izung'' || ''izungi''
|-
| '''ANG''' || eat, consume; take in; receive, accept || ''yang'' || ''yangi''
|-
| '''GAS''' || get; obtain, receive; understand || ''egas'' || ''egashi''
|-
| '''KASH''' || learn, comprehend || ''ekash'' || ''ekashi''
|-
| '''PUSH''' || perceive; know; sense || ''ipush'' || ''ipushi''
|-
| '''SHI''' || think, consider, regard; view; judge, measure || ''ishi'' || ''ishii''
|}
====Verbs of Motion====
Verbal roots of motion define direction but not means or manner, i.e. there are roots meaning 'go', 'go up', 'go past' etc. but not 'walk', 'fly', 'ride', 'rush'. To describe either means or manner, compound verbs are used.
Means of motion is usually indicated by an adverb ending in ''-(e)s'', derived from
* a noun denoting the physical method of propulsion
:: ''wengeepii'' "walk, go by foot" < ''wenges'' "by foot" + ''BII''
:: ''heujiipii'' "ride, go by horse" < ''heujis'' "by horse" + ''BII''
:: ''ferowupii'' "sail, go by boat" < ''ferous'' "by boat" + ''BII''
* a noun denoting the medium through which movement occurs
:: ''uzeepii'' "swim etc, go by water" < ''uzes'' "by water" + ''BII''
:: ''urushiipii'' "fly, go by air" < ''urushis'' "by sky" + ''BII''
:: ''bideepii'' "go by road" < ''bides'' "by road" + ''BII''
Manner of motion is denoted either by
* an adverb in ''-ki'', derived from an adjective
:: ''laitekkibii'' "move quickly" < ''laitekki'' "quickly"
:: ''lambakibii'' "move slowly" < ''lambaki'' "slowly"
* a noun, with the meaning "to move as or like..."
:: ''urujibii'' "move drunkenly" < ''uruji'' "drunk person"
:: ''bumibii'' "move like a baby" < ''bumi'' "baby"
:: ''heujitobii'' "move like a foal" < ''heujito'' "foal"
These same methods can be employed with other roots denoting movement to describe both directed and means or manner, e.g:
:: ''wengeekang'' "climb, ascend by foot" < ''wenges'' + ''GANG''
:: ''uzeewash'' "sink, descend through water" < ''uzes'' + ''WASH''
:: ''laitekkitoz'' "rush towards, charge" < ''laitekki'' + ''TOZ''
:: ''urujixaz'' "enter drunkenly" < ''uruji'' + ''XAZ''
====Kinship Terms====
====Kinship Terms====
In Burungian society, each individual belongs to a broad group known as an ''yenu'' "tribe" and within that to a family group called an ''as'' "clan", the members of which claim matrilineal descent from a pair of common ancestors known as the ''heuji'' (male) and ''beus'' (female). A person belonging to the same clan is called a ''beraako'', whilst anyone beyond the clan group is an ''ase''.
In Burungian society, each individual belongs to a broad group known as an ''yenu'' "tribe", largely defined by adherence to a particular chief and worship of a tutelary deity.  Within that tribe they belong to a family group called an ''as'' "clan", the members of which claim matrilineal descent from a pair of common ancestors known as the ''atasho'' (male) and ''amasho'' (female). A person belonging to the same clan is called a ''beraako'', whilst anyone beyond the clan group is an ''ase''.


Somewhat distinct from the clan group is an individual's close family group, known as ''osunka'' "kinsmen". While a person traces his clan group as a vertical line, descending through a series of individuals, his ''osunka'' is more like a network extending in every direction. Anyone who shares a common great-grandfather (''araato'') or great-grandmother (''ashoto'') with a person is considered his ''angade'' "relative, kinsman". Within this family group there are then three degrees of proximity, which restrict such things as marriage and are relevant in the inheritance of property:
Somewhat distinct from the clan group is an individual's close family group, known as ''angazoi'' "kinsmen". While a person traces his clan group as a vertical line, descending through a series of individuals, his ''angazoi'' is more like a network extending in every direction. Anyone who shares a common great-grandfather (''araato'') or great-grandmother (''ashoto'') with a person is considered his ''angaba'' "relative, kinsman". Within this family group there are then three degrees of proximity, which restrict such things as marriage and are relevant in the inheritance of property: the '''''hayabing'''''  line, the '''''yipuaute''''' line and the '''''wengaute''''' line.


# '''Exoolaing''', the direct line (lit. 'line of begetting'), includes a person and his direct ancestors (parents, grandparents and great-grandparents) and descendants (children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren). Marriage and sexual relationships are strictly prohibited within the ''exoolaing''.
=====''Hayabing''=====
# '''Yipugyong''', the secondary line, includes a person's siblings and their children, their spouse and their spouse's parents and children, and their parent's siblings or spouses. Half-siblings are not distinguished from full siblings as they still contain one parent's blood. Step-parents are considered identical in relation to parents-in-law and step-children to children-in-law. Marriage within this line is prohibited (except in the case of spouses), but sexual relationships are not.
The ''hayabing'' line (literally "ancestors-descendents"), also called the ''buruaute'' or "head line", is the primary family line including a persons direct ancestors and descendents. Marriage and sexual relationships are strictly prohibited within the ''hayabing''.
# '''Audagyong''', the side line, includes anyone descended from a great-grandparent not included in the above, and anyone within a spouse's secondary line. There are no prohibitions regarding marriage or sexual relationships between these people.  


Within these three groups, distinctions are then made by generation, and, in some instances, by gender.  
* ''hayaba'' any direct ancestor preceding great-grandparents
* ''nanaba'' "great-grandmother"
* ''waraapa'' "great-grandfather"
* ''ashoba'' "grandmother"
* ''araapa'' "grandfather"
* ''ama'' "mother"
* ''ata'' "father"
* ''ayaba'' "daughter" (teenage or older)
* ''xemba'' "son" (teenage or older)
* ''omba'' "child" (preteen or ''iriji'')
* ''yoba'' "grandchild"
* ''yobato'' "great-grandchild"
* ''bimba'' any direct descendant following great-grandchild.


{| class="wikitable" width="100%;" class="bluetable lightbluebg"
Notes:
* Most familial terms end with the suffix ''-ba'' and are derived (sometimes irregularly) from ordinary parts of speech, e.g. ''xemba'' "son" < ''xini'' "boy, lad", ''waraapa'' "great-grandfather" < ''waras'' "old man".
* Distinctions between maternal and paternal ancestors are made with the adjectives ''amaking'' "maternal" and ''ataking'' "paternal", e.g. ''amaking nanaba'' "maternal great-grandmother".
* Disctinctions of gender may be made with ''hayaba'', ''yoba, yobato'' and ''bimba'' with the adjectives ''acchi'', ''buyachi'' and ''iriji'', e.g. ''acchi yoba'' "grandson".
 
=====''Yipuaute''=====
The ''yipuaute'' (literally "hand line") is the secondary line and includes a person's siblings and their children, their spouse and their spouse's parents and children, and their parent's siblings or spouses. Half-siblings are not distinguished from full siblings as they still contain one parent's blood. Step-parents are considered identical in relation to parents-in-law and step-children to children-in-law. Marriage within this line is prohibited (except in the case of spouses), but sexual relationships are not.
 
* ''xeba'' "aunt, foster-mother"
* ''hoyaba'' "uncle, foster-father"
* ''waba'' "mother-in-law, step-mother, mother of half-sibling"
* ''aneriba'' "father-in-law, step-father, father of half-sibling"
* ''az, abba'' "husband"
* ''buya, buyaba'' "wife"
* ''neba'' "older sibling"
* ''azeba'' "younger sibling"
* ''ezang'' "daughter-in-law, step-daughter"
* ''angane'' "older cousin, foster-sibling, or other relative of same generation"
* ''angeepa'' "younger cousin, foster-sibling, or other relative of same generation"
 
 
 
 
{| class="wikitable" width="100%;" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
|-
|-
! width="10%;" | !! width="30%;" | 1st Degree !! width="30%;" | 2nd Degree !! width="30%;" | 3rd Degree
| width="25%;" | || width="25%;" | || width="25%;" | || style="background: pink;" width="25%;" | ''nanaba'' <br /> <small> great-grandmother</small> <br /> ''waraapa'' <br /> <small> great-grandfather</small>
|-
|-
! Gen. -3 
| || || style="background: pink;" | ''ashoba'' <br /> <small>grandmother</small> <br /> ''araapa'' <br /> <small>grandfather</small>
| style="text-align:center;" | '''great-grandfather:''' ''araato'' <br/> '''great-grandmother:''' ''ashoto'' || rowspan="2;" | || style="text-align:center;" rowspan="3;" | '''other older collateral relative:''' <br/> ''asaba''
| style="background: lemonchiffon;" rowspan="2;" | <small>older relative</small>
|-
|-
! Gen. -2
| || style="background: pink;" | ''ama'' <br /> <small>mother</small> <br /> ''ata'' <br /> <small>father</small>
| style="text-align:center;" | '''grandfather:''' ''aras'' <br/> '''grandmother:''' ''asho''
| style="background: moccasin;" | ''xeba'' <br /> <small>aunt</small> <br /> ''hoyoba'' <br /> <small>uncle</small>
|-
|-
! Gen -1
| style="background: pink;" | '''EGO'''  
| style="text-align:center;" | '''father:''' ''yata'' <br/> '''mother:''' ''ama'' ||style="text-align:center;" | '''parent's brother:''' ''xoba'' <br/> '''parent's sister:''' ''xeba'' <br/> '''parent's sibling (''iriji''):''' ''hanauba'' <br/> '''father-in-law, step-father:''' ''neba'' <br/> '''mother-in-law, step-mother:''' ''aneepa''
| style="background: pink;" | ''neba'' <br /> <small>older sibling</small> <br /> ''azeba'' <br /> <small>younger sibling</small>
| style="background: moccasin;" | ''angane'' <br /> <small>older cousin</small> <br /> ''angeepa'' <br /> <small>younger cousin</small>
| style="background: lemonchiffon;" |
|-
|-
! Gen. 0
| style="background: pink;" | ''ayaba'' <br /> <small>daughter</small> <br /> ''xemba'' <br /> <small>son</small> <br /> ''omba'' <br /> <small>child</small>
| style="text-align:center;" | '''EGO:'''  ''NI'' || style="text-align:center;" | '''husband:''' ''az, xengaz'' <br/> '''wife:''' ''buya, xengaz'' <br/> '''older sibling:''' ''angane'' <br/> '''younger sibling:''' ''azeba'' || style="text-align:center;" | '''other same-generation relative:''' <br/> ''xingangade''
| style="background: moccasin;" | <small>niece, nephew</small>
| colspan="2;" rowspan="3;" style="background: lemonchiffon;" |
|-
|-
! Gen. +1
| style="background: pink;" | ''yoba'' <br /> <small>grandchild</small>
| style="text-align:center;" | '''child:''' ''omba'' || style="text-align:center;" | '''nephew/niece:''' ''yoba'' <br/> '''step-child, son/daughter-in-law:''' ''ezang'' || style="text-align:center;" rowspan="3;" | '''other younger collateral relative:''' <br/> ''xuni''
| rowspan="2;" style="background: lemonchiffon;" |
|-
|-
! Gen. +2
| style="background: pink;" | ''yobato'' <br /> <small>great-grandchild</small>
| style="text-align:center;" | '''grandchild:'''  ''xemba''|| rowspan="2;" |
|
|-
! Gen. +3
| style="text-align:center;" |  '''great-grandchild:'''  ''xembato''||
|}
|}
====Personal Names====
Burunking personal names consist of a '''family name''' (''aaxeng'') and a '''given name''' (''xeng''). Family names are derived from an individual's clan and remain the same throughout a person's life. Given names consist of two types: a) a childhood name conferred by parents at birth or early childhood (''ayaxeng''), and b) an adult name conferred at puberty by community elders (''xensho'').
=====''Family Names''=====
Family names are generally derived from the name of the ''amasho'' (female ancestor) of a clan, usually with one of the suffixes ''-eng'', ''-iri'', ''-ko'', ''-zoi'' and, rarely, ''-daz''. For example, a descendant of ''Endazibya'' might be called ''Endazibyeng'' or ''Endazibiri''. More often, a hypocoristic form of the name is used, e.g. ''Endashiri'' or ''Daziko''.
Some clans - mainly those of higher status - take their name from a specific historical event or a chosen characteristic, e.g. ''Laitezuenzoi'' "swift-footed ones", ''Buzugozzoi'' "solid in battle".
Family names are not changed on marriage. Children will usually adopt the name of their mother.
=====''Childhood Names''=====
Childhood names are usually affectionate, descriptive names indicating some physical characteristic or quality. For example, a child born with dark hair or complexion might be called ''Beuto'' "little dark one", a fair child might be called ''Oijing'' "like the sun", a happy child might be called ''Izizoi'' "fond of smiling". To western ears some of these names might seem rude or uncouth, denoting apparently negative or embarrassing features according to our own standards, e.g. ''Ishuno'' "little blind one", ''Beretteng'' "big ears", ''Xabeuno'' "little pot belly". There are few taboos concerning such names, except where they are deemed to confer bad luck or are considered to diminish the status of the family. A handful of words are not considered appropriate, e.g. ''dedez'' "beautiful, handsome" is used only of adults.
Since prepubescent children are considered to be ''iriji'', names do not differ between physically male and female children, except in cases where they refer to specifically male or female properties, e.g. ''Hekyuto'' "little penis" or ''Heenjing'' "bull-like".
Childhood names essentially work like nicknames in the sense that they are designed to be specific to an individual and affectionate. As such, they often continue to be used even when the child no longer resembles the description. In some cases, however, names are changed naturally to more appropriate descriptions. For example, a small chubby baby named ''Lujito'' "little chubby one" might grow tall and slim and be renamed ''Xigojjing'' "rod-like".
Once a child has reached adulthood and undergone the relevant rites, it is considered rude to refer to a person by their childhood name, except for close family members and close friends. In some cases an individual will forego their childhood name entirely.
=====''Adult Names''=====
Adult names are conferred as part of the series of rites that initiate a child into adulthood. They are usually composed of two elements, which are symbolic of an individual's qualities and expected role in society. The two elements are always combined into a single word, but they may or may not make sense as a unit. For example, the name ''Endazibya'' above is derived from ''endaz'' "strength, power" and ''ibya'' "river", and may be interpreted as a whole meaning "power of a river".
There is effectively no restriction to the elements that may be used to create a given name, but there are general themes to words used and certain common elements. The elements may be nouns or adjectives and in most cases there is no restriction on the order in which they appear.
* '''Topographical features:''' ''binji'' "mountain", ''ibya'' "river", ''eshayo'' "sea", ''laze'' "meadow"
* '''Celestial:''' ''xaz'' "star", ''urushi'' "sky", ''yori'' "rain", ''oi'' "sun", ''oje'' "cloud", ''ye'' "moon", ''yai'' "wind", ''ibung'' "day", ''ba'' "night", ''nibu'' "winter", ''oda'' "summer"
* '''People:''' ''andosh'' "lord", ''andez'' "lady"
* '''Animals:''' ''heuji'' "horse", ''osho'' "wolf", ''heeng'' "bull", ''azang'' "eagle", ''erei'' "bee", ''uruho'' "dove", ''iji'' "ox", ''esang'' "stallion"
* '''Other:''' ''fu'' "fire", ''xing'' "oath, promise"
* '''Adjectives:''' ''dedez'' "beautiful, handsome", ''enji'' "great, large", ''furi'' "white, pure", ''funuz'' "wise", ''eregi'' "bright", ''laxa'' "calm, peaceful, gentle", ''xakong'' "deep", ''ong'' "good", ''goz'' "hard", ''beng'' "solemn", ''heni'' "careful, vigilant"
In some communities it is common for all children to the same parents or the same mother to have one element of their name in common. For example, a group of siblings may be called '''''Azang'''enji'', ''Oda'''azang''''', ''Nibu'''azang''''', '''''Azam'''funuz'' and '''''Azam'''beng''.
There are no clear distinctions made between masculine, feminine or ''iriji'' names. Semantically, certain elements are more common for certain genders:
* '''acchi''' names are more commonly associated with battle, physical strength and bravery. Male animals like ''heeng'' and ''esang'' are almost exclusively used for males, as are other masculine forms like ''andosh'' "lord".
* '''buyachi''' names are often
=====''Hypocoristics''=====
Hypocoristics or nicknames are common in Is Burunking. There are no clear rules for their formation, but they are generally shortened versions of childhood or adult names. They also rarely include long vowels or diphthongs.
The shortened form may be purely a section of a longer name, commonly taken from the middle of the name so that it overlaps separate elements, though frequently the choice is merely a matter of preference. E.g. ''Izizoi → Zizo, Zizoi, Izi, Endazibya → Dazi, Endaz''. Frequently, such names will undergo anomalous changes, such as voicing of plosives or altering sounds, e.g. ''Hekyuto → Gyudo, Azambeng → Zambu, Zama, Jambe, Shambe''.
Reduplication of a syllable is especially common in childhood names, in female names and in pet names but is often considered demeaning in the wrong context. Any part of the name may be reduplicated and the syllable may be repeated exactly or undergo ablaut. E.g. ''Beuto → Bebe, Bebo; Oijing  → Jiji, Jiju, Lujito → Lulu, Lula''. Names or syllables beginning with a vowel will often reduplicate the consonant at the beginning of the word, e.g. ''Oijing → Joji, Odaazang → Doda''.
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
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