Kirtumur verbs

Verbs in Kirtumur have grammatical properties which differ from those of the other word classes. They have a different inflection as well as a distinct syntactic function. A clause is a grammatical unit that consists of a predicate and the elements that accompany it. Kirtumur has nominal, copular and verbal clauses, the predicate of the latter is a verb. Verbs refer to a large variety of actions and states. The number and kinds of participants involved differ between different actions and states and thus between different verbs. Also Kirtumur verbal forms are either finite or non-finite. The non-finite verbal forms (or the participles) have a different inflection from the finite forms.

A verbal form can contain several prefixes and suffixes. In addition, one or more clitics can be attached to it. The prefixes and suffixes express a large variety of meanings, including several for which English uses pronouns, adverbs, or auxiliary verbs.

Just like any other language, Kirtumur has word classes of verbs. There are two main classes: finite and non-finite, although many verbs can have forms that belong to both these classes. All finite verbs are primary, that is, verbs which refer directly to some action or state and can make up a clause by themselves. This is often not the case with non-finite verb forms, which rarely make up a clause by themselves and require an additional verb to form a clause. Although a large subgroup, called adjectival verbs, can act similarly to finite verbs in this aspect.

Verbal clause

Verbs refer to a large variety of actions and states. An action involves a number of participants, who have roles in that action, and a state involves a participant, who experiences that state. The number and kinds of participants involved differ between different actions and states and thus between different verbs. Because there is a wide variety of actions and states, there are also many kinds of participants.

Every verb has a specific set of syntactic functions expressing the participants who have roles in the specific action or state. For example, the verb thacha "to give" expresses its three participants with a transitive subject (or the agent), a direct object (the patient), and an indirect object (the recipient). In this way, the verb determines the basic structure of the clause and can therefore be said to be the centre of it. If a clause contains more than one verb, the centre is called the main verb. A subject, object, or adjunct is expressed by using a noun phrase and/or a verbal affix. In the following example the verb teka "to pour", for instance, has four participants, a person pouring (the agent), a fluid poured (the patient), a recipient, who has something poured (the indirect object) and a container, into which something is poured (location). An agent is expressed by a noun phrase in the ergative case, a patient by a noun phrase in the absolutive case, an indirect object by a noun phrase in the dative case and an indirect locative object by an noun phrase in the absolutive case (since the locative case is only used with place nouns):

Mulittarara	wa	ninatektē	ŋaškin	Arkaunišes
Mulittar-ara	wa-Ø	ni-na-tek-t-ē	ŋaškin-Ø	Arkauniš-es
Mulittar=DAT	water-ABS	3sg.Loc-3rd.AN.IndObj-pour-PRF-3sg.Ag.3sg.Pat	cup-ABS	Arkauniš-ERG
"Arkaunishi has poured water for Mulittari into a cup".

Because non-finite verbal forms lack person markers, except for the indirect onject markers, the method for expressing a subject and object is different in non-finite clauses:

Mulittarara	wa	ninatektei	ŋaškin	...
wa-Ø	Mulittar-ara	ni-na-tek-tei	ŋaškin-Ø	...
water-ABS	Mulittar=DAT	3sg.Loc-3rd.AN.IndObj-pour-PRF.NFIN	cup-ABS	...
"when (he) has poured water for Mulittari into a cup..." This phrase cannot be a standalone sentence, since the verb tektei is non-finite, it requires a main verb. Neither the agent not the patient can be expressed with by using verbal affixes, these instead would be placed on the main verb only.

Finite verbs

As Kirtumur finite verbal forms can be quite complex, their structure takes up a major portion of its grammar. The make-up of the verbal stem itself is quite simple, the vital step is to determine the correct order of affixes in order to analyse the verb. A finite verbal form consists of a verbal stem preceded by one or more prefixes and followed by at least one suffix (though this suffix can be a zero morpheme).

A finite verbs has several forms depending on its aspectual category. There are five distinct verb forms in Kirtumur: imperfective, aorist, perfect, irrealis and imperative. The imperfective describes ongoing, continuous or repeated actions, whether that situation occurs in the past, present, or future. The imperfective contrasts with the aorist, which usually expresses perfective aspect and refers to past events and typically also has a resultative use. The perfect form indicates that an action or circumstance occurred earlier than the time under consideration and is already completed. The irrealis describes events that are considered unlikely, depend upon a certain condition, or are expected or awaited. Finally, the imperative forms a command or request and only implies a second-person subject (you), while for a first- and third-persons the optative is used instead, which belongs to the irrealis form. All of these forms can be further divided into TAM categories. Each form receive a different marking, represented in a table below:

	Aorist	Imperfective	Perfect	Irrealis	Imperative
Future tense	—	Future	—	Optative	—
Present tense	Gnomic (obsolete)	Present	Perfect	Present Subjunctive	Imperative
Past tense	Aorist	Past	Pluperfect	Past Subjunctive	Hortative (obsolete)

The following table lists the obligatory parts of a finite verbal form, in the same order as they occur in actual forms (the root is marked with an underscore):

Forms	Aorist	Imperfective	Perfect	Irrealis	Imperative
Future	—	_-is	—	kur-_	—
Present	e-_-e	_-e	_-(e)t	pa-_	_-eya
Past	e-_	e-_-e	e-_-(e)t	he-pa-_	nu-_-(ey)a

Finite verbs are further divided into two major classes: intransitive and transitive, which differ in their conjugation for person. Intransitive verbs take person prefixes to mark the agent of a sentence, while all transitive verbs use person suffixes instead, which mark both the agent and patient (or the subject and the direct object). The category of number is also expressed differently in both classes.

Intransitive verbs

An intransitive clause is a construction with an intransitive subject and a predicate. Although it may contain one or more indirect objects, it is not as common as their use in transitive clauses. An intransitive verb takes one person prefix in order to indicate its agent. There are two sets of prefixes: one for affirmative (or positive) verbs and one for the negative ones.

	Affirmative	Negative
1st person	ha-	ŋi-
2nd person	ō-	ŋō-
3rd person animate	i-/Ø-	ki-
3rd person inanimate	sa-	nes-

In order to indicate the number of a person a number suffix is used: -u for dual and -it for plural. The singular remains unmarked and is viewed as the default, when there is no number marking on a verb, even when the nouns in the clause are marked.

Transitive verbs

A transitive verb is a verb that accepts one or more objects in addition to the subject in the ergative case. Technically, there is no limit to how many objects a transitive verb can accept, but there must be at least one. Every transitive verb contains a person suffix, which not only indicates the person of the arguments of a verb, but also their relation:

Affirmative				Negative
1→2	-ō	1←2	-(e)hō	1→2	-ōŋ	1←2	-kō
1→3	-i	1←3	-šu	1→3	-iki	1←3	-uška
2→3	-an	2←3	-(e)he	2→3	-ŋam	2←3	-ek
3An→4	-ē	3In/4An→3	-ur	3An→4	-ēki	3In→4An	-raka

A number suffix, used for dual is -k and for plural it is -tu. Only the subject can be marked for number and the noun in the dual or plural form will always be treated as a subject, unless specified otherwise: nenētu is "they see him/her", but nenurtu is "he/she sees them".

Modal Prefixes

Kirtumur verbs often have a grammatical morpheme which in the relative order of verbal prefixes precedes other morphemes is a proclitic, called the modal prefix. They perform different roles, but usually expresses modality or contrast. If a verb phrase contains more than one verb, the proclitic will be used with the main verb.

The first group of proclitics contains the temporal prefix u-, which shows the sequence of actions. For example: Eišilel unilatturtu wimmuk "She/He left after she/he has put them into a basket" (PAST-3Sg-leave REL-3Sg.Loc-put-INV.3Pl basket-Abs). The prefix ut- has the meaning of "while" or "during" but unlike the previous prefix, it can also be a separate word, especially in old texts. Most often it is used with non-finite verb forms: uttarca Iktarenen "during the celebration of the Ascending".

The second group has no temporal meaning, but rather expresses various kinds of modality. The prefix ix(i)- express positive or negative wishes, commands, and assertions, for instance: ixneithachan "You must give it back to him/her". It can often be used with the imperative. Another proclitic is ŋa- which either marks contrast, if two actions are different or has the meaning of "also": ŋakhartiki "but I did not take it". In older texts, as well as in the noble speech the prefix nu- is often used as hortative, while in spoken Umunesal (the common speech) it is almost completely replaced by the optative, with the exception of some fossilised expressions: nulua "let’s go".

Locative prefixes

The locative prefixes indicate a location or motion and precede indirect object prefixes and often occur word-initially, when a verb does not contain any proclitics. There are several locative or dimensional prefixes and they are different for every grammatical person (there is no animacy distinction in third person):

	Singular	Dual	Plural
1st person	zin-	win-	min-
2nd person	ti-	tiu-	tin-
3rd person	ni-	ri-	nin-

Indirect object

The indirect object is expressed with prefixes, which can be used with all verb types (for verbs, that cannot have a subject, this is the only way to show a grammatical person). In ditransitive verbs the indirect object marker serves a dative or, less commonly, instrumental role. Kirtumur indirect object prefixes are shown in the table below:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
1st person	za-	zau-	me-
2nd person	la-	lau-	le-
3rdAn person	na-	nau-	ne-
3rdIn person	ca-	cau-	ce-

The other set of indirect object markers are the comitative suffixes, which encodes a relationship of "accompaniment" between two participants in an event. Only animate participants can be marked with the comitative suffix, otherwise the indirect object prefix would be used.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
1st person	-ta	-tak	-taphi
2nd person	-tar	-tarak	-tarpi
3rd person	-(e)nta	-(e)ntak	(e)ntaphi

The comitative suffixes are not used very often and only with animate nouns: neihaluistar "I will go there with you". Inanimate nous are instead marked as oblique objects: muŋis nini ixicalakte heim "The child ran out of the house with food" (food-Abs child-Abs 3Sg.And-3sg.IndObj-3sgSubj-run-PRF house-Abs).

Directional prefixes

Two prefixes, used most commonly with verbs of motion are the andative prefix xi- and the venitive prefix ei-/i-. In the general sense, the prefix "ei" shows movement towards the listener or the deictic centre and "xi" shows movement from or away from it: taukhiŋ leihašalis "I will travel to you tomorrow" and laxišilais mu-ŋiarepe "I will leave (from) you now, since I don’t feel good". The andative is used less often, than the venitive and in some cases this prefix can be dropped, when the meaning of a phrase can be inferred from the context: lašilais ("about to leave you").

Voice and valency

Verbs refer to actions and states which involve participants. The number and kinds of participants involved differ between different actions and states and thus between different verbs. In this way every verb combines with a specific set of grammatical relations (subject and objects). This set is called its valency. Kirtumur has several mechanisms which change the normal valency of a verb. The middle, passive and antipassive voices reduce its valency. For increasing the valency of a verb, it has causative constructions.

Middle voice is unmarked and morphologically looks fairly similar to the active voice of intransitive verbs: hakaure "I am sleeping (active)", hakhat "I stop (middle)"; the only difference is the absence of "-e" in middle verbs. The subject of such verbs is like the subject of active verbs, but it is also affected by the action it performs. This also makes this voice similar to reflexive, which, unlike the former, has a direct object, which is the same as the subject: ecamakhat "I stopped myself from (doing) it".

An antipassive is an intransitive construction derived from a transitive one by changing the agent of a transitive verb into an intransitive subject, while the former patient becomes the adjunct. Unlike middle verbs, an antipassive verb must contain the adjunct and it can never be dropped: hakhathō "I am stopped by you" from khathō "I stop you". Antipassive is rarely used on its own, it usually emphasises contrast or focuses on the intransitive subject of a sentence.

In a clause with passive voice, the patient of the main verb becomes the intransitive subject, while the former agent is deleted. Morphologically it is formed from a transitive verb by replacing its person suffix with a prefix m-: khathō "I stop you" – mōkhathe "You are stopped" (here the suffix "-e" reappears, because it is no longer blocked by the person suffix). Unlike antipassive, passivisation always involves deleting the transitive subject, never changing it into an adjunct. This construction is called the dynamic passive, the usage of which is restricted, because it is similar to reflexive and in some cases the forms can coincide: meyil means either "it was thrown away" or "it threw itself away". Kirtumur solves this ambiguity by mainly choosing a reflexive meaning, while for a passive meaning the stative passive is used instead: yilauni "thrown away"; this is a non-finite verb form and usually such forms cannot be used on their own in a sentence, for example, the sentence heimnu ritēni amax "(this) is the place, where his/her house is built" is correct, because it contains a predicate amax, while *heimnu ritēni yim "*here his/her house built" is not valid, because it requires a finite verb. A stative passive differs from a dynamic passive in that it only indicates the event or state and does not specify its duration. The form heim mirite "the house is being built" indicates that the action is ongoing, unlike the previous example.

Kirtumur has two causative constructions, one derived from an intransitive construction and the other – from a transitive construction. In both cases the valency of the verb is increased by one participant. The causative of an intransitive verb becomes a regular transitive verb: the intransitive subject becomes the patient, while the causer is expressed by the agent. Such verbs, as "to hold" or "to do", are intransitive by default and in order to indicate the subject they require causative: ikhe "she/he is doing (something)" hēlnim ikhaē "she/he is casting a spell". The causative of a transitive construction is derived in a slightly different way. The causer is likewise expressed by the agent, but the original agent becomes the indirect object. The original patient remains unchanged: nakhei ŋeša uttexe "I made him/her do it faster" (3Sg.IndObj-do-1sgAg.3sgPat fast-INF before-DAT).