Kola: Difference between revisions

==Introduction==

Kola is a Bantu language spoken in northwestern Ethiopia and Eritrea.

^{<small>2</small>} Gemination and tone are not normally indicated, and the vowel /ɨ/ is not distinguished from a null vowel. If absolutely necessary (e.g. in texts meant for learners/foreigners), gemination can be indicated with a overdot, stress with an underline<!--tone with grave/acute accents-->, and unstressed /ɨ/ with an underdot.

====Latin alphabet====

{|style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"

{|class="wikitable"

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! IPA

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! IPA

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*Maintaining distinction between /ʒ/ and /d͡ʒ/.

*Maintaining distinction between dental and alveolar stops, and between sibilant and non-sibilant alveolar fricatives. The alveolar stops/affricates (/t͇’ ~ t͡ɬ’, t͇ʰ ~ t͡ɬʰ, d͇ ~ d͡ɮ/) and non-sibilant alveolar fricatives (/θ͇ ~ ɬ, ð͇ ~ ɮ/) correspond to Proto-Bantu palatals before non-front vowels, which in the standard language merged with other palatals.

*Labialized/palatalized consonants where the standard has plain consonants.

*Devoicing of voiced fricatives.

|+ Noun classes

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! 18

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'''Notes:'''

<small>²</small> Productive meanings are marked with an asterisk.

<small>⁵</small> (w/ï) = -w- added before vowels

:e.g. class 3 ምጢ ''mïthí'' "tree" (stem: ''-thí'') → class 4 ምጢ ''mïthí'' or class 6 መምጢ ''mämthí'' "trees"

::class 5 ዚጨ ''zíchä'' "eye" (stem: ''-íchä'') → class 6 ሜጨ ''méchä'' or መሜጨ ''mäméchä'' / መዚጨ ''mäzíchä'' "eyes"

Younger speakers tend to add the prefixes to the noun's singular form, while older speakers add them to the plural forms or don't add them at all. In this article, the traditional plurals are used.

<!--

*'''Accusative''': Marked with ''-n''. Used for the direct object of verbs.-->

*'''Dative''': Class 17 prefix (''g(w/ï)-''). Used for indirect object, destination, "to/for", "to the benefit of".

*'''Ablative''': Class 16 prefix (''bä-''). Used for source, "against", "to the detriment of".

|+ Kola personal pronouns

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! 1S  

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! 2S  

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! 3SA

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! 3SI  

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! 1P  

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! 2P  

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! 3PA

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! 3PI

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! IMP

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*The proximal and distal demonstratives can either take regular or extended pronominal concord prefixes. The extended prefixes provide extra emphasis.

*The referential pronoun generally uses the non-reduplicated form (identical to the clitic pronoun) in the presence of a prefix.

===Adjectives===

In the below table, like the rest of this article, animacy concord is used (with 9/10 for inanimate). Class 7/8 forms are also given in order to demonstrate the effects of sandhi, particularly in the forms for "two". Note that 10 and higher numbers do not take concord prefixes.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|+ Kola numbers

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! 1

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! 2

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<!--

! 3

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! 3

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! 4

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! 5

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! 6

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! 7

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! 8

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! 9

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! 10

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! 11

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! 20

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! 100

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! 1000

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*'''Post-FV (post-final vowel)''': includes negative suffix ''-m''.

====Non-finite forms====

Nominalization prefixes occur at the beginning of the verb unit (in the pre-SM position).

'''Infinitive''' is a class 15 noun. It is formed by adding the class 15 prefix to the verb stem - e.g. ጔደ ''<b>gw</b>éddä'' "to walk" (root: ''-édd-''), ግዙጘ ''<b>gï</b>zúngä'' "to cook (trs.)" (root: ''-zúng-'').

====Negative and interrogative====

'''Negation''' is accomplished with the circumfix ከ-ም ''kä-m'' in main clauses, the prefix ከ- ''kä-'' for subjunctive verbs, and the post-subject prefix -ሲ- ''-si-'' for relative verbs and derived nouns.

:e.g. ኜደ ''nyéddä'' "I walk" → ከኜደም ''<b>kä</b>nyéddä<b>m</b>'' "I do not walk"

<!--

'''Yes/No''' questions are formed with the suffix ''-m'' on the verb.

<!--

*-ደ- ''-dä-'': event that is expected or hoped to occur in the future, "hopefully -, will probably"-->

=====Suffixes=====

:e.g. ጔዴ ''gwédd<b>e</b>'' "to have walked", ግዙጜ ''gïzúng<b>e</b>'' "to have cooked"

The '''singular imperative''' is formed with the ending ''-á'' {''-́''} in the absence of prefixes, and identically to the subjunctive in the presence of object prefixes. The '''plural imperative''' is formed with the ending ''-(ä)ní''. In both the singular and plural, the second person subject prefix is dropped in the absence of object prefixes and maintained in their presence. Both singular and plural imperatives are replaced with the corresponding subjunctives when negated.  

::ከዌዴ ''<b>kä</b>wedd<b>é</b>'' "do not walk", ከውዬድሌ ''<b>kä</b>wyeddïl<b>é</b>'' "do not walk to it", ከኔዴ ''<b>kä</b>nedd<b>é</b>'' "do not walk (pl.)", ከኒዬድሌ ''<b>kä</b>niyeddïl<b>é</b>'' "do not walk (pl.) to it"

Special imperative forms only exist in the second person; other persons use the subjunctive. In the second person, the subjunctive can be used to make a command softer.

====Verb extensions====

:e.g. ጔድሏ ''gweddḯl<b>wa</b>'' "to be walked to", ጔድልዌ ''gweddḯl<b>we</b>'' "to have been walked to".

::ግዙጟ ''gïzúng<b>wa</b>'' "to be cooked", ግዙⶕ ''gïzúng<b>we</b>'' "to have been cooked".

:e.g. ጔዚሸ ''gwezz<b>ísh</b>ä'' "to cause to walk", ጔዚዜ ''gwezz<b>íz</b>e'' "to have caused to walk".

:: ግዙጂሸ ''gïzuj<b>ísh</b>ä'' "to make (someone) cook", ግዙጂዜ ''gïzuj<b>íz</b>e'' "to have made (someone) to cook".

:e.g. ጔድለ ''gwédd<b>ïl</b>ä'' "to walk to", ጔዲሌ ''gwédd<b>ïl</b>e'' "to have walked to".

:: ግዙይለ ''gïzúy<b>l</b>ä'' "to cook for", ግዙይሌ ''gïzúy<b>l</b>e'' "to have cooked for".

:e.g. ጔድለነ ''gwéddïl<b>än</b>ä'' "to walk to each other", ጔድለኔ ''gwéddïl<b>än</b>e'' "to have walked to each other".

:: ግዙጘነ ''gïzúng<b>än</b>ä'' "to cook each other", ግዙጘኔ ''gïzúng<b>än</b>e'' "to have cooked each other".

:e.g. ጔደጘ ''gwédd<b>äng</b>ä'' "to walk a lot", ጔደጜ ''gwédd<b>äng</b>e'' "to have walked a lot".

:: ግዙጘጘ ''gïzúng<b>äng</b>ä'' "to cook a large amount", ግዙጘጜ ''gïzúng<b>äng</b>e'' "to have cooked a large amount".

:: ግዙጙጘ ''gïzung<b>úng</b>ä'' "to cook intensively/repeatedly", ግዙጙⶕ ''gïzung<b>úng</b>e'' "to have cooked intensively/repeatedly".

<!--

:e.g. ግዙጝገ ''gïzúng<b>g</b>ä'' "to cook (intr.)", ግዙጝጌ ''gïzúng<b>g</b>e'' "to have cooked (intr.)".-->

====Some important verbs====

=====Copulae=====

====="To have"=====

===Ideophones===

===Particles===

====Focus particles====

**(with nominals): places focus on the nominal - e.g. ንሚ ኛዬዴ ''<b>nïmí</b> nyayédde.'' "<b>It is I</b> who walked." (compare: ሚኒ ኜዴ ''míni nyédde.'' "I walked.")

**(with verbs in the indicative): places focus on the verb - e.g. ንኜዴ ''nïnyedde'' "I did walk" (i.e. "(it is true) that I walked")

**(with verbs in the subjunctive): "that" - e.g. ንኜዴ ''nïnyeddé'' "that I walk". Can be used for necessative (must, should), often in combination with the applicative of the copula - e.g. ንኜዴ (ዪኝዋለ) ''nïnyeddé (yinywálä)'' "I must walk" (literally: "(there is on me) that I walk")

**(with verbs in the indicative): negates and places focus on the verb - e.g. ስኜዴ ''sïnyédde'' "I did not walk" (i.e. "(it is true) that I did not walk")

**(with verbs in the subjunctive): "that not" - e.g. ስኜዴ ''sïnyeddé'' "that I do not walk". Can be used for negative necessative (must not, should not), often in combination with the applicative of the copula - e.g. ስኜዴ (ዪኝዋለ) ''sïnyeddé (yinywálä)'' "I must not walk" (literally: "(there is on me) that I do not walk")

====Conjunctions====

====Adpositions====

*Locative prefixes (with all their meanings)

*Circumfixes formed from prefix + noun:

**ግ- ሙት ''g(w/ï)- mútt'': "into"

**በ- ግት ''bä- gḯtt'': "in the general area of"

**በ- ግጊሰ ''bä- gïgísä'': "because; because of"

==Syntax==

Like most modifiers, relative clauses and possessors precede the noun they modify.

-->

Like most modifiers, relative clauses and possessors precede the noun they modify.

==Example texts==

===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===

'''This article's script:''' Wä́tt wócäni bäwaválwa wänáxa wál na bäkḯbrinä bähháqqi walḯggänä. Hhḯllïnanä qháqli bäwameĵiphálwa, bawlḯngu mänfä́s niwaĵïlläné yiwawálä.

'''Gloss:''' <small>C2</small>.people <small>AGR₂</small>-all-<small>NOM</small> when-<small>SM₂</small>-give_birth-<small>PASS</small>-<small>PRES</small> <small>AGR₂</small>-free <small>SM₂</small>-be-<small>PRES</small> and <small>C16</small>-<small>C9</small>.dignity and <small>C16</small>-<small>C10</small>.rights <small>SM₂</small>-be_equal-<small>PRES</small>. <small>C9</small>.conscience and <small>C9</small>.reason because-<small>SM₂</small>-<small>ANT</small>-<small>OM₁₀</small>-give-<small>APP</small>-<small>PASS</small>-<small>PRES</small>, with-<small>POSS</small>-<small>C14</small>.brotherhood <small>C3</small>.spirit that-<small>SM₂</small>-<small>OM₁₀</small>-act-<small>APP</small>-<small>REC</small>-<small>SUBJ</small> <small>SM₉</small>-<small>OM₂</small>-be-<small>APP</small>.<small>PRES</small>.