Kola

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Kola (Native: ጅቆለ /d͡ʒɨkʼolə/, Latin script: Jïqolä) is a Bantu language spoken by the Kola people .

Introduction

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

Consonant phonemes
Labial Coronal Palatal/
Postalveolar
Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
plain labialized laminal1 apical1 plain labialized
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ ŋʷ
Stop ejective (ʈʼ) kʷʼ
aspirated (ʈʰ) kʷʰ ʔ
voiced b d (ɖ) ɡ ɡʷ
Affricate ejective t͡sʼ t͡ʃʼ
aspirated t͡ʃʰ
voiced d͡ʒ
Fricative voiceless f s (ʂ) ʃ χ χʷ ħ h
voiced v z (ʐ) (ʒ)3 ʁ ʁʷ ʕ
Approximant l j w
Tap/Trill r

Notes:

1 The consonants /tʼ, tʰ, d, s, z/ may be either apical or laminal in the standard language. The stops /ʈʼ, ʈʰ, d/ may be dental or alveolar.

2 The consonants /ʈʼ, ʈʰ, ɖ, ʂ, ʐ/ are apical alveolar or post-alveolar. They occur dialectally and correspond to standard /t͡ʃʼ, t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ, ʃ, d͡ʒ/ respectively. In these dialects,/tʼ, tʰ, d/ are laminal and/or dental.

3 The distinction between /d͡ʒ/ and /ʒ/ has been lost in the standard language (where they occur in free variation), but is still present in some dialects.

Vowels

Vowel phonemes
  Front Central Back
High i ɨ u
Mid e ə o
Low a

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

The maximum allowed syllable structure is CVCC word-finally and CVC otherwise. Consonant clusters with more than two consonants are broken up by inserting the epenthetic vowel /ɨ/. /ɨ/ is also added (in speech only) after a word-final consonant cluster when the following word begins in a vowel.

Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. When this would happen, they are separated with epenthetic consonants such as /j/, /w/, or /ʔ/.

Morphophonology

Sandhi

  • ï + w, y > u, i / _C / w or y is geminated
  • ï + w, y > uw, iy / _V / w or y is geminated
  • ä + w, y > o, e / _C / w or y is geminated
  • ä + w, y > ow, ey / _V / w or y is geminated
  • ï > Ø / C_C whenever possible
  • ï > Ø / _V in most cases
  • ï > w / C_V sometimes in grammatical morphemes - will be indicated with (ï/w)
  • ä + ä, e, i, o, u > a, e, e, o, o
  • ä + ï > e OR o (depending on origin of ï)
  • front vowel > Ø / e_
  • back vowel > Ø / o_

Consonant mutations

Spirantization:

p’, pʰ > f

b, w . v

t’, tʰ, t͡s’ > s

d, l, r > z

t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ > ʃ

(d͡ʒ > ʒ)

(t͇’, t͇ʰ, d͇ > θ͇, θ͇, ð͇)

k’, kʰ, g > χ, ħ, ʕ

ŋ, ʔ > ʁ

Nasalization:

p’, t’, (t͇’), t͡s’, t͡ʃ’, k(ʷ)’ > pʰ, tʰ, (t͇ʰ), s, t͡ʃʰ, k(ʷ)ʰ

w, j > b, d͡ʒ

l, r > d

ŋ(ʷ), ʔ > g(ʷ)

χ, ʁ > ħ, ʕ

Ø > ɲ / _V

Palatalization:

ŋ, ʔ > j

k’, kʰ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ

χ, ħ, h > ʃ

g, ʁ, ʕ > d͡ʒ, (ʒ, ʒ)

Labialization:

ŋ, ʔ, k’, kʰ, g > ŋʷ, w, kʷ’, kʷʰ, gʷ

χ, ħ, h > χʷ

ʁ, ʕ > ʁʷ

Historical phonology

Grand master plan

(Proto-Bantu reconstruction taken from Wikipedia.[1] To avoid confusion, Proto-Bantu *j is written ɟ)

ɟ > Ø / V_a, ɲ_a

ɟ > Ø / (i/ɪ)_ (i/ɪ)

p, b > p͡f, b͡v / _i, _u

t, d > t͡s, d͡z / _i, _u

c, ɟ > c͡ç, ɟ͡ʝ / _i, _u

k, g > k͡x, g͡ɣ / _i, _u

ɪ, ʊ > i, u

i, e, u, o > j, j, w, w (transfers high tone to following vowel) / _V

V́, VV > V: (VV = doubled vowel)

ie, ei > e:

uo, ou > o:

ai, ae, au, ao > e:, e:, o:, o:

b, d, ɟ, g > β̞, l, j, ɰ / not preceded by nasal

p͡f, b͡v > f, v / not preceded by nasal

t͡s, d͡z > s, z / not preceded by nasal

c͡ç, ɟ͡ʝ > ç, ʝ / not preceded by nasal

k͡x, g͡ɣ > x, ɣ / not preceded by nasal

c, ɟ > t͡s, d͡z / _a(:)

c, ɟ > t͡ɬ, d͡ɮ / _o(:), _u(:)

c, ɟ > t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ / _e(:), _i(:)

[-voiced +prenasalized +stop/affricate ] > [-prenasalized +aspirated] (i.e. mp, nt, etc > pʰ, tʰ, etc for all voiceless stops and affricates)

[-voiced -aspirated +stop/affricate ] > [+voiced] / in grammatical morphemes

[-voiced -aspirated +stop/affricate] > [+ejective] / otherwise

[+voiced +prenasalized +stop/affricate] > [-prenasalized] / #_, V:_ (i.e. mb, nd, etc > b, d, etc)

[+voiced +prenasalized +stop/affricate] > [-prenasalized +geminate] / V_

NN > N / #_, V:_

velar > palatal / before front vowel

c͡ç’, c͡çʰ, ɟ͡ʝ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ

c’, cʰ, ɟ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ

ç, ʝ > ʃ, ʒ

k͡xʰ, g͡ɣ > qʰ, ɢ

p͡fʰ, b͡v > f, v

t͡sʰ, d͡z > s, z

t͡ɬ’, t͡ɬʰ, d͡ɮ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ (dialectal t͇’, t͇ʰ, d͇, with t’, tʰ, d being dental)

ɬ, ɮ > ʃ, ʒ (dialectal θ͇, ð͇)

ɰ > ŋ / always / ɰV_ + sporadic

qʰ, ɢ > χ, ʁ

Kw > Kʷ (where K = kʼ, kʰ, ɡ, ŋ, χ, ʁ, x, ɣ)

Kʷ > K / _VKʷ, _VP (where P = labial consonant)

β̞ w, ɰw> w / always / _VKʷ, _VP

β̞ w, ɰw> β̞ , ɰ / otherwise

mw > mʷ / in grammatical prefixes

χ, ʁ > ħ, ʕ (this does not affect the labialized equivalents)

x(ʷ), ɣ(ʷ) > χ(ʷ), ʁ(ʷ)

ʒ > d͡ʒ (not in all dialects)

β̞ > w

a, e, o > ə

a:, e:, o: > a, e, o

i, u > ɨ

i:, u: > i, u

wɨ, jɨ > u, i / _C

ɨ > Ø / _#, VC_C (starting from beginning of word) / disallowed by phonotactics

j > Ø / C_V

ɰ > ʔ

l > r / sporadic

χ, ħ > h / sporadic

Morphology

Nouns

Noun classes

Kola preserves most of the Proto-Bantu noun classes.

Noun classes
Class Noun prefix Concord prefixes1 Typical meaning(s)
Subject Object Adjective
1 m(ï/w)-; - a(y)-2 m(ï/w)- m(ï/w)- Humans, animate
2 wä- wa wä- Plural of class 1
3 m(ï/w)- ŋu- m(ï/w)- Inanimate
4 mï- ji- mï- Plural of class 3
5 yï-; - li- yï- Augmentatives, various
6 mä- ŋa- mä- Plural of class 5, mass nouns
7 jï- ĵi- jï- Tools/artefacts, diminutives, languages, various
8 vï- vi- vï- Plural of class 7
9 N-3; - yi- N- Animals, inanimate
10 N-3; - ĵï- N- Plural of classes 9 & 11
11 lï- lu lï- Abstract, manner/way/culture
12 gä- ga- gä- Diminutives
13 d(ï/w)- du- d(ï/w)- Plural of class 12
14 wï- wï- wï- Abstract, countries/lands
15 g(ï/w)- gu- g(ï/w)- Infinitives
16 bä- ba- bä- Location
17 g(ï/w)- gu- g(ï/w)- Approximate location

Notes:

1 These concord prefixes are old-fashioned and tend to be replaced by animacy-based concords. Words agreeing with animate nouns use classes 1/2 (for singular and plural respectively), while those agreeing with inanimate nouns use classes 5/6 or 9/10.

2 -y- is added epenthetically before vowels.

3 N- = initial nasalization of stem.

4 Inanimate nouns (especially those whose plural form is identical to their singular) can add the class 6 prefix mä- to their plural. Similarly, animate nouns not already in class 1 can add the class 2 prefix wä-.

e.g. class 3 mïthi "tree" → class 4 mïthi or class 6 mämthi "trees"
class 5 yicho "eye" → class 6 mecho or mämecho "eyes"
class 5 yïtt "giant" → class 6 mätt or class 2 wämätt "giants"

Pronouns

Adjectives

Verbs

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources