Laceyiam

Laceyiam, or Chlegdarimė hėnna ("language of the Chlegdarims"), or, in its modern standard version, Laltīmāhei hėnna ("language of Laltīmāhia") is the most spoken language on the planet of Calémere (Lac.: Lillańjānna). It is the official language of Laltīmāhia, the liturgical language of the Yūnialtia, and a lingua franca in many areas of the continent of Isungatsuaq (Lac.: Kaissmūhai). Despite the fact that local vernaculars in most of Laltīmāhia are in fact daughter languages of Laceyiam or Laceyiam-based creoles, Laceyiam is a fully living language as every Chlegdarim is bilingual in it and in the local vernacular, and in fact in the last half century Laceyiam itself has been replacing some vernaculars as internal migrations have become more and more common. About 1,4 billion people on the planet define themselves as native Laceyiam speakers, more than for any other Calémerian language.

Terminological note: hereafter I'll use Laceyiami as an adjective for things related to the language, Chlegdarim for things related to the Chlegdarim people, Laltīmāhei for things related to the nation of Laltīmāhia and Yūnialtei for things related to the Yūnialtia, the religion of the Chlegdarims. (Still, keep in mind these definitions often overlap)

External history

Laceyiam is an a priori language I (lili21) started creating - in this current version - in January 2016, but actually it is the latest version of the conlang for my main conculture. I started sketching conlangs back when I was 9 or 10 but only started interesting myself into linguistics seven years later - in 2014 - and since then I started doing more "serious" conlangs (the earlier ones were more like relexes of my native language, Italian). Ideally, Laceyiam is the refined version of all of these languages, but except for a few recurring words (like maila (water) or hulyn (woman)) it is only comparable to those languages I have been creating since July 2015 - in fact, the nearest previous version, which I began in October 2015, was already called Laceyiam.

Anyway, while being a priori, there are definitely many noticeable influences from natlangs. Sanskrit, Lithuanian, and Icelandic are the most obvious ones, and also Danish, PIE, Old Tupi, and Japanese had a moderate influence. However, I tried to do something that while having much in common with all of these languages, is also strikingly different (the Austronesian morphosyntactic alignment, morphological expression of evidentiality and more broadly the particular emphasis on moods probably being the most noticeable things). Laceyiam is mainly thought for my conworld, but more than any other conlang of mine it is quite on the border between an art- and a heartlang.

Classification

Laceyiam is a member of the Cis-Tahianshima language family (Lac.: Yaivnemiði hėnnai), which originates from an ancestral people whose homeland was located on some island groups east of the island of Tahianshima (Lac.: Tāhiańśīma), the second-largest on Calémere (roughly comparable in size, geographical characteristics, and location to New Guinea).

Laceyiam is the closest language to Proto-Cis-Tahianshima (PCT; in Lac.: Indayaivnemiði hėnna), but that's likely because the first attestation of Laceyiam dates to 2000 years before the second-oldest attested Cis-Tahianshima language (Tarueb on the other side of the planet); in fact that's a longer time frame than the 1100 to 1300 years that, according to most Calémerian linguists, divide late common PCT from the earliest attestations of Laceyiam.

As Laceyiam evolved while the Chlegdarims migrated east and then southeast from their original Cis-Tahianshima homeland, they had contacts with lots of other peoples with whom they also mixed to some extent. This, in addition to the loss of contact with the other speakers of Proto-Cis-Tahianshima dialects (that in fact went through a phase called "Late Eastern PCT", marked by some sound changes shared by all Cis-Tahianshima languages except Laceyiam), resulted in a series of huge changes in morphology and especially vocabulary that set Laceyiam apart from most other Cis-Tahianshima languages. Taruebic and Pakpatic languages underwent a similar history through a later migration from the Cis-Tahianshima homeland in the opposite direction; the other two Cis-Tahianshima branches, Mid-Oceanic and Upper Oceanic have had less outside interactions as they only spread across islands in the Great Ocean (Lac.: Nemiðārṭya).

Vernaculars, pronunciations, and dialects

Being a classical language first spoken some millenniums ago, Laceyiam today does not have true “dialects”. As said before, the most informal form of Laceyiam is usually a local vernacular, daughter language of Laceyiam, but in usual terminology they are not truly distinguished: the term Chlegdarimė hėnna, often used to refer to Laceyiam, may be used for any language spoken by Chlegdarims, thereby including the vernaculars. All vernaculars are usually known as Chlegdarimė hlūðė hėnnai (singular: — hlūði hėnna), literally “local Chlegdarim language(s)”, and people colloquially call their vernacular speech with the name of their village, city, or region, as opposed to the Laltīmāhei hėnna - the common language of all of Laltīmāhia, that is standard Laceyiam. The diglossia between them often has blurry borders, as two people speaking may keep code-switching depending on the topic, a common example being in schools: teachers and professors teach their lessons in Laceyiam, but they usually speak in vernacular language of any other topic even with the students.

While Laceyiam does not have local dialects, there are speech varieties; Laceyiam terminology just calls them ńäytharaṃsai (singular: ńäytharam), “pronunciations”, but differences are also lexical and, in some cases, even grammatical; the written form is based on Classical Laceyiam (Chløyęe Laceyiam), but no modern pronunciation follows it. Standard Laceyiam - the Laltīmāhei hėnna - is based on a typical Southeastern pronunciation, formally the one of Kaylamārśikha, capital of Laltīmāhia, around year 60 of the Fourth Era; today the pronunciation of Kaylamārśikha has diverged somewhat and the closest “natural” pronunciation to Standard Laceyiam is the one of Līlta, in the South, the third largest city in the country. 

The main pronunciation differences are the “digraphs” <hv hj hr hl> and the high vowels <i ī y ȳ>; these were /ɦv ʑ ɦʀ ɦɴ̆ i iː y yː/ in Classical Laceyiam; to make some examples, Standard Laceyiam has respectively /f ɕ ʁ ʕ̯ ʲi ʲiː i iː/ while the Northern Plains pronunciation (the one with the most speakers) has /kf ʃ ʁ ɴ̆ i iː y yː/. Some other differences include:

• the merger of Classical and Standard /ʂ ɕ/ (and usually also Classical /ʑ/ which often merged into /ɕ/ like in the Standard) into a single /ʃ/ - this happens for example in the Northern Plains, but also throughout most of the North and some lone areas like Kahimithan diocese in the Southwest;
• the pronunciation of /ʀ/, which often has up to four allophones depending on context, all geographically varying - for example word-initial /ʀ/ may be one of [ʝ ʀ r ɾ ɻ] depending on the area;
• the pronunciation of various vowels, like for example /aː/ as [ɔː] in the Central Plains pronunciation or /eː/ as [ɛə̯] in most of the Western Deserts.

Speaking strictly of Laceyiam dialects, there has been, historically, an unattested dialect called murta dialect (murta ga viṣandaira), contrasting with Classical Laceyiam which, in these contexts, is called marta dialect (marta ga viṣandaira). The murta dialect is attested through some doublets in Laceyiam where one word has been derived apparently irregularly from Proto-Cis-Tahianshima: the most famous one is the one that gives the name to these dialects, marta/murta, both meaning “city” - “marta” is by far the most common term in Laceyiam, but “murta” is widely used in toponyms: this word is an evolution from PCT *kʷʰə₁rta (closed area), where *ə₁ became /a/ in the marta dialect (later Archaic and then Classical Laceyiam, probably *ə₁ > *o > a) but /u/ in the murta dialect; PCT *ə₂ likewise became marta /e/ but murta /i/. Some notable other differences include:

• PCT *ā₁ > marta /au̯/ but murta /aː/;
• PCT palatovelars, velars and labiovelars all merged into /k kʰ g gʱ/ in the murta dialect; the marta dialect regularly reflects palatovelars as /c͡ɕ c͡ɕʰ ɟ͡ʑ ɟ͡ʑʱ/, velars as /k kʰ ɦ gʱ/ and has various reflexes for labiovelars, most commonly /ɦv m g m/;
• PCT *sk > marta /sk/ but murta /ʂ/;
• PCT word-final *jə is usually lost in marta (but leaves i-umlaut on a preceding vowel if possible) but becomes /e/ in murta;
• PCT word-initial prevocalic *s remains /s/ in murta, while marta has many possible reflexes depending on the following vowel (probably *s > *tsʲ > various), compare e.g. PCT *sā₁skjə (bird) > regular marta täyska (bird; through intermediate *täysk) and murta-word sāṣe (flying creature).

History

Proto-Cis-Tahianshima

The history of Laceyiam is tightly linked with the one of the Chlegdarim people and it is usually divided in the following periods:

• Proto-Cis-Tahianshima (PCT for short);
• Pre-Laceyiam;
• Pre-Classical or Archaic Laceyiam (with the first attestation);
• Classical Laceyiam;
• Post-classical developments.

The oldest stage we can be sure of is Proto-Cis-Tahianshima, or Indayaivnemiði hėnna, the latest common ancestor of all Cis-Tahianshima languages. It was most probably spoken 4000 to 3600 years ago in some island groups east of Tahianshima (Lac.: Tāhiańśīma, the second-largest island on the planet), in the middle of the Greater Ocean (Nemiðārṭya). Note that the term Cis-Tahianshima has a Western Calémerian origin, and it means “on this side” of Tahianshima for Western people (Evandorians); from a Chlegdarim perspective it’s the other side — anyway, Laceyiam and its descendants are the only Cis-Tahianshima languages spoken west of the island. The Laceyiam term for Cis-Tahianshima is Yaivnemiði, meaning “of the whole Nemið ocean”.Note also that no Cis-Tahianshima language is native of the island of Tahianshima itself, even though today the island’s lingua franca is Laceyiam and the local vernacular is a Laceyiam-based creole.

Through reconstructed vocabulary we can also hypothesize which kind of society the Proto-Cis-Tahianshima people had. They were primitive but due to their insular location were skilled navigators; their atolline and insular habitat is confirmed by the huge number of words relating to it, like *tuŋa₁ (atoll), *ħō₁nə (lagoon), *ta₂fā (islet), three terms distinguishing different depths of lagoon water (*dotepō₁kə, *ve₁mpeg, *ną₂gnos); they also had the word *ja₁ŋwī for large boats (probably used for travelling through different islands) and *na₂sət for smaller ones; *ŋotirō₁ is a wave (and possibly also “solar ray”), *kurū₂m (guano), and no word at all for “mountain” or “hill”. They had rudimentary weapons like the *gʷūm₂poxim (harpoon) and the *kōɣəndsą₁(s) (knife). They lived in villages called *ɟō₂n-bʱeg with leaders called *ɟun-bʱi-spā₁r. Military leaders were called *šimvā₂tə (reconstructible from Mid-Oceanic languages and Laceyiam) or *spār-dū₂s (from the other branches), and also extremely important were *šjā₂mejə, guardians of boats - this latter root even became the verb “to save” in Pakpatic and Taruebic languages and the standard honorific yāmei in Laceyiam. The primitiveness of their society is stressed by the fact that they didn’t wear any clothes - there is no reconstructible word for any type of clothes, and also some oceanic islanders didn’t use clothes by the time - 200 years ago - they first had contact with Western civilizations. Still there are three reconstructible body ornament words (none of these survived into Laceyiam, though): *dū₁stes (necklace — only in Mid- and Upper Oceanic), *pōnā₁bə (branch or stick inserted into an ear), and *fode₁g (penis sheath). This latter object probably was a status symbol, as Pakpatic and Taruebic languages reflect it as “family leader”.

Proto-Cis-Tahianshima speakers moved mostly eastwards, colonizing (or conquering) most of the islands in the Ocean east of Tahianshima, and northwards up to the island-continent of Écáreton, and these dialects later split into four different branches:

• the Mid-Oceanic languages are spoken on most of the islands of the Great Ocean, mostly spread longitudinally for two thirds of the way from Tahianshima to the Western continents of Védren and Evandor on the east side of the ocean;
• the Upper Oceanic languages are spoken in those island groups north of the Middle Oceanic languages, and also in the southern part of Écáreton;
• the Taruebic and the Pakpatic languages’ speakers migrated east and eventually reached first northwestern Védren - where the Pakpatic languages are now spoken - and southwestern Evandor, current homeland of the Taruebic languages.

The fifth dialectal group of PCT was spoken by those speakers who moved westwards, eventually reaching Tahianshima itself: these are the ancestors of the Chlegdarim people and their PCT dialect was the earliest stage of what today is Laceyiam (in a Western perspective, this stage may be called Proto-Dryadic or Proto-Imuniguronian, Imúnigúrona being the common Western name for Laltīmāhia).

Pre-Laceyiam

Laceyiam had (like also Taruebic and Pakpatic on the other side of the world) peculiar developments that set it apart from most other Cis-Tahianshima languages, but given the different geographical area its developments were pretty much unique. Laceyiam is also often closer to PCT in its consonants than any other known sister language, but that’s easily explainable because of its early attestation: the first written examples of Laceyiam date to roughly 3000 years ago, about seven centuries after it supposedly split from other fellow PCT dialects; in comparison, the second oldest attested Cis-Tahianshima language, Old Tarueb, was only attested about 1000 years ago; other Taruebic languages were only clearly attested in the last 500 years and other branches in the last 150.

The Laceyiam split from PCT happened earlier than for all other branches, as all other branches underwent a late-PCT reworking of the pitch accent system, adding another (but in most cases allophonic) tonal distinction and losing the phoneme *ə. This stage is usually known as Late Eastern PCT; PCT as reconstructable from all languages, including Laceyiam, has only a two-tone pitch accent system, written as *V₁ (low-mid tone) and *V₂ (high tone); the lack of a subscript number means that vowel is unstressed. No Cis-Tahianshima language keeps this tone system today, but most of them reflects the different accents with different vowel qualities. Laceyiam is particularly helpful in reconstructing it, not just because it didn’t undergo the Late Eastern PCT pitch accent system reworking, but also because most pitch-accented vowels have different reflexes (except for high vowels). For example, PCT had six [a]-phonemes: *a₁ *a₂ *a *ā₁ *ā₂ *ā. Laceyiam reflects them as such: *a₁, *a > a — *a₂ > ai — *ā₁ > au — *ā₂, *ā  > ā.

Laceyiam, anyway, extensively modified its vowel system through regressive umlaut and assimilation of *j and *w glides, and also the loss of *ə created lots of consonant clusters and consonant-final words, which were all later simplified in some way. Another notable change is the loss of the various [o]-phonemes into another, mostly into /a/. Syncope and the loss of phonemic stress led to different derivations of a same PCT root being often obscured in Laceyiam.

As for consonants, Laceyiam is the only Cis-Tahianshima language (excluding its own descendants) that kept the four-way contrast in stops (unvoiced and voiced, plain and aspirate) and four out of five PCT points of articulation: labials, dentals, palatals and velars were kept, but labiovelars merged into different phonemes depending on nearby vowels. However Laceyiam gained a new fifth point of articulation for stops, the retroflex one, mostly from sequences of a dental consonant plus *r. Laceyiam is also the only language in its family that reflects directly the PCT phoneme *ħ, whose realization is still unclear but was most probably [ħ], [ʜ], or [ʕ]: in the vast majority of cases, PCT *ħ corresponds to Laceyiam <l>, the peculiar nasal (post-)uvular flap /ɴ̆/. This latter phoneme, the most common consonant in Laceyiam, is a reflection of four PCT phonemes: *ħ, *l, *ŋ, and *ŋʷ, as well as other sources like *r word-initially and in dissimilation, or changes like *kr *kʰr > kl. The common cluster /c͡ɕʰɴ̆/ <chl>, as in the word Chlegdarim, arose both from *cr, *cʰr and also from various simplifications after schwa syncope. The three common PCT phonemes *x, *ɣ, and *h were most often deleted but left their trace in the breathy-voiced phonation of the preceding vowel.

Prehistoric language contact

Perhaps more important than phonological changes in the differentiation of (Pre-)Laceyiam from PCT is the extensive language contact it underwent after the migrations began and these speakers lost contact with fellow speakers of other PCT dialects. As said before, these latter dialects soon underwent other changes before linguistic unity broke apart, but these changes didn’t spread to Pre-Laceyiam speakers. On the other hand, their language was heavily influenced by Proto-Mǎng Tì (PMNg for short; Lac.: Indamälti hėnna), spoken by people of present-day Mǎng Tì pọk, a country on the eastern third of the island of Tahianshima (as a side note, Laceyiam is extremely important in the reconstruction of Proto-Mǎng Tì phonology). Lots of PMNg roots entered Laceyiam, not only in order to fill lexical gaps but also replacing meanings of inherited PCT roots that either went lost or changed meaning. PMNg borrowings are thus found even in daily vocabulary, for example weather conditions like duṃda (fog), basic concepts like daya (thing), geographical features like memai (river delta), and even body parts like piāh (elbow). Among body parts that only partially replaced the inherited term, the Laceyiam word for “mouth”, dehān, is a PMNg borrowing, while the inherited PCT term, hairū, came to mean “jaw” (semantic shifts like this one are very common in PCT-descended Laceyiam roots).

PMNg reconstructions and Laceyiam often have 1:1 matches, but these loans help date PCT to Laceyiam sound changes. For example [ɣ] was clearly not a Laceyiam phoneme anymore, as PMNg *ɣ is consistently reflected as Laceyiam /g/ (while PCT *ɣ became /ɦ/ word-initially, breathy-voiced phonation in codas, and /g/ plus breathy-voiced phonation of a preceding vowel when intervocalic). On the other hand, Laceyiam still had phonemic [o], as PMNg *o shows the same development of PCT *o₂/*o. PMNg loans caused the introduction of a new phoneme - the glottal stop - and added many occurrences of voiced aspirated stops (from PMNg implosives) and retroflex consonants (from PMNg *Cr clusters).

During this prehistoric period, the original Proto-Cis-Tahianshima morphology was also radically changed. PCT was moderately agglutinative but used lots of particles and analytic forms; a few different apparently synonymous particles are also reconstructed, but it was definitely much more analytic than Laceyiam is. Laceyiam, in fact, fused together many inherited morphemes and created that way most fusional noun declensions and synthetic verb tenses (for example the future is PCT infinitive + *i₁š- (to take); most tenses are actually verb endings attached to various PCT participles).

PCT also relied a lot on ablaut variations: inflectional ablaut was already somewhat uncommon (but regular) in PCT, but derivational ablaut was extremely common. Laceyiam keeps ablaut much more than all other Cis-Tahianshima languages, but even there in verbs it’s mostly a relic, while ablauting nouns (which also used different endings) were dumped into the fourth declension, and Laceyiam even added some mostly by analogy. Anyway the combination of different evolutions like the *o > a merger, extensive vowel syncope, umlaut that often added even more vowel alternations, the increasing use of the simpler suffixing-only inflections, and, most importantly, the loss of phonemic and movable stress, led to the loss of ablaut as a productive inflectional and derivational system.

Proto-Mǎng Tì itself had two main influences on Laceyiam grammar. The first is the addition of the abessive and substitutive cases - the most regular ones in Laceyiam - by attaching the PMNg postpositions *tyak “without” and *myaŋ “instead of” to the accusative case forms. The second, and by far most important one, is the origin of the exterior and interior verb forms. This feature wasn’t borrowed directly, but made from inherited PCT elements as a kind of “calque” of some PMNg structures, particularly the pairing of static or “uncontrolled” meanings with the reflexive voice. Laceyiam interior endings are in fact derived by the “normal” exterior verb endings with added *nəs, a clitic form of PCT *nō₁ns, a reflexive pronoun.

The arrival on Isungatsuaq

Despite probable intermixing and this extensive contact with the Mǎng Tì-s, the Chlegdarims didn’t remain long on or near Tahianshima island and soon moved westwards into the large archipelago in the southern part of the Sea of Tahianshima (Tāhiańśīmi jāri); this area (roughly cut in half by the Equator) takes about three quarters of the sea between Tahianshima and the continent of Isungatsuaq (to the extent that, while geologically this archipelago and Tahianshima itself already lie on the Oceanic plate, nowadays they are geographically often considered an extension of Isungatsuaq). The Chlegdarims’ last stop before the continent was most possibly Luldakimū island on the 4th parallel south, the southwesternmost main island and largest of the archipelago, and also the nearest to the continent. From there, they probably reached the islands on the continental ridge off today’s Leitāvaja before settling on the Sāńjāyaṇa peninsula - the southernmost tip of Isungatsuaq - and the cay chain south of it.

The Chlegdarims quickly spread across southern Leitāvaja, making contact with a new habitat, mostly made of rainforests and swamps (even more than on Tahianshima) and other civilizations: first of all the so-called Nanaklāri peoples, whose languages have never been directly attested. Their name derives from Nanaklāra, a borough in Kaylamārśikha (Laltīmāhia's capital city and the largest city on the planet) whose name is a toponym linked to a "Nanaklāri" origin. Old Hjøtūchilāmi isn't usually set apart from Nanaklāri languages, but unlike "proper Nanaklāri" it is attested in sparse inscriptions and texts both in Laceyiam and Dzams-bltyod; it was however spoken further west (in present-day Hjøtūchilām) but was another major source language for many loans into Laceyiam, including a huge number of proper personal names. Apropos personal names, the fact almost no common Laceyiam given name is PCT-derived and a good majority is of either Old Hjøtūchilāmi or Nanaklāri origin, most anthropologist think that the Chlegdarims absorbed Nanaklāri and Old Hjøtūchilāmi cultures easily by intermarriage so that ethnic identity “borders” between them became blurred and vanished. The other main influence was Ancient Lelīmuyāńi, the language of Lelīmuyāńa (a historical distinct region, today in northern and northeastern Leitāvaja and extreme southern Lanturlīṭa dioceses), which at the time was the most advanced civilization of the area. Ancient Lelīmuyāńi already had written texts, and in fact the first attestation of the Chlegdarims’ presence is found in an Ancient Lelīmuyāńi text, probably aimed at travelling merchants, which talks about “people of the west” living in the “forested low coastal areas”, which call themselves Cuḷeketazhi (approximation of Chlegdarim) in the language we (the Ancient Lelīmuyāńi people) call “laccaiyam”. The word Laceyiam is in fact an Ancient Lelīmuyāńi borrowing, meaning “voice (iyam) of the sunset (lacca)”, where “sunset” means “west”.

Despite the prehistory of Laceyiam and its descendance from Proto-Cis-Tahianshima being now certified and accepted scientifically, Laceyiam’s date and place of birth are considered respectively the time of the Chlegdarims’ arrival on Isungatsuaq and southern Leitāvaja. This area is in fact the homeland of Chlegdarim civilization, and it is only here that Chlegdarim culture and traditions shaped themselves - including language. The most obvious and most important trace of this in Laceyiam is the huge number of words that entered the Chlegdarims’ daily life: obviously they had the need to describe the nature they found themselves in, a jungle- and swamp-centric environment, most features of which were completely unknown in their previous, sea-based habitat. In fact, most words for equatorial plants, animals, and geographical features are of either Nanaklāri, Old Hjøtūchilāmi, or Ancient Lelīmuyāńi origin (e.g. jaja “igarapé”, māra “mango”, kāmbava “water lily”, ėmīla “tiger”, kėmbe “toucan”, naʔikė “flooded clearwater forest”, heita “durian”, kalńi “sound of a tree branch falling into water”); only few of them have Proto-Mǎng Tì origin (e.g. kami “rose”, dalakām “bamboo”, humba “spice”, tiuʔa “palm”), and only those most related to coastal areas are inherited from PCT (e.g. tėti “island”, jhāva “reef”). Also borrowed are lots of wordsrelated to activities and products (e.g. mānska “glass”) and, most importantly, cultural (e.g. buldhām, the typical Chlegdarim burial and the relative ceremony; talengim, ritual tattoo) and religious terms, most of which have probable Nanaklāri origins. In fact, the Leitāvaji society of the First Era was extremely multicultural, and Nanaklāri languages in the west and Ancient Lelīmuyāńi in the east (the latter being the only written language) were the lingua francas; Laceyiam became more important and ultimately drove the others to extinction mainly for two reasons: the cultural intermixing mentioned before and also because Lėliðaṇīṭa, the Great Prophet of the Yūnialtia, was a Chlegdarim and her language began to be considered holier; the amount of Nanaklāri instead of Ancient Lelīmuyāńi words in Yūnialtei terminology points to her native village, and the areas of her first teachings, being located west of the Kaicedhīma mountains.

Laceyiam up until this point in time is normally defined as Pre-classical Laceyiam: its limit is the late First Era, around the lifetime of Lėliðaṇīṭa, with Nanaklāri and a few Old Hjøtūchilāmi loans being already established, but without substantial Ancient Lelīmuyāńi influence; in the earliest Laceyiam texts (Archaic Laceyiam) we can for example already find the root numbers of Nanaklāri origins (tulūʔa “six” and jaibha “fifteen”) but the number system itself is still hexadecimal (the Classical decimal one was borrowed from Ancient Lelīmuyāńi). Anyway, except for the hexadecimal numeral system, Laceyiam had grammatically already reached its classical and present state.

From Classical Laceyiam to the present day

Classical Age is a vague term in Chlegdarim history, but it embraces the period between the last century of the First Era and the first third of the Second Era. There are four important historical milestones:

• Laceyiam, under Ancient Lelīmuyāńi influence, begins to be a written language;
• The Chlegdarim Inquisition (Høgyṃhjøðaṃlīne), supreme body of the Yūnialtia, is founded;
• The Conquests begin: driven by religious zeal and economical needs, the Chlegdarims begin to conquer neighboring civilizations;
• In the late Classical Age, regional spoken varieties begin to evolve as new vernaculars.

Laceyiam, during the Classical Age, begins to become exactly how it is today. Ancient Lelīmuyāńi loans begin to enter the language en masse, including the new decimal numeral system (which is however formed by a mix of inherited hexadecimal roots and decimal Ancient Lelīmuyāńi and Nanaklāri ones); Ancient Lelīmuyāńi roots remain still today a huge source of learned vocabulary. Classical Age explorations and conquests enriched Laceyiam with knowledge of new habitats, new languages, and related words: in two millenniums, the Chlegdarims unified under a single culture and religion (and politically from the beginning of the Fourth Era, 133 years ago) a huge territory extending for about 40 degrees of latitude and 90 degrees of longitude, about a third of the continent of Isungatsuaq. Attested languages such as Dzams-bltyod, Ancient Varṣāthi, and Ancient Vgorrādńi provided words related to administration, astronomy, politics, warfare, and architecture; unattested languages from the Southwest were also a rich source of words on nature and geography.

In the late Classical Age Laceyiam begins to be a standardized language, in the form that has been Yūnialtei peoples of Chlegdarim culture’s lingua franca ever since, also because of the gradual development of newer vernaculars in the regions of most ancient Chlegdarim hold. Since then the language has mostly only gained new vocabulary - both for geographical and scientific discoveries -, with the only few grammatical “innovations” in certain areas (like the Northern use of infinitive + “to want” instead of the desiderative mood) being actually “contaminations” by vernaculars or adstrata.

Phonology

Consonants

Standard Laceyiam has a slightly above average consonant inventory with, in the most common analysis, 39 phonemes. The consonant analysis followed here does not follow the exact points of articulation, but is the traditional analysis done by native grammarians, grouping consonant phonemes in mostly regular groups. The Laceyiam word for consonant, hīmbeyālia, is a compound of hīmba "colour" and yālia "sound".

	Labials	Dentals	Retroflexes	Palatals	Velars	Laryngeals
Nasals	m	n	ɳ	ɲ		N*
Voiceless plosives	p pʰ	t̪ t̪ʰ	ʈ ʈʰ	c͡ɕ c͡ɕʰ	k kʰ	ʔ
Voiced plosives	b bʱ	d̪ d̪ʱ	ɖ ɖʱ	ɟ͡ʑ ɟ͡ʑʱ	g gʱ
Sibilants		s	ʂ	ɕ
Non-sibilant fricatives	f v	θ				ɦ ʁ
Flaps						ʕ̯
Nasal flaps						ɴ̆
Approximants		ð̞				ʀ
Semivowels				j

Some analyses differ slightly from the one above: the laryngeal flap /ʕ̯/ is sometimes included among the non-sibilant fricatives (susatiak pańjńybessai), and nasal flaps, approximants and semivowels are all grouped as approximants (mūgyālieniai). These analyses focus more on the actual behaviour of consonants in different environments rather than on their actual articulation.

Please note that, to avoid cluttering transcriptions, /t̪ t̪ʰd̪ d̪ʱ ð̞/ will be transcribed simply as /t tʰ d dʱ ð/.

Important notes about consonant phonemes:

• /N/, written <ṃ>, is realized as an uvular nasal before laryngeal consonants or as a nasalization of the preceding vowel before other consonants (especially /d dʱ/). Note that <ṃ> may also appear representing a different nasal phoneme (usually /m/) in other morphologically conditioned environments. /n/ is realized [ŋ] before velar consonants and is written <n> except for the root cāṃkra- (to end, to finish, to border).
• The consonants written <hj hv hr hl> were clusters in Classical Laceyiam, but they are the phonemes /ɕ f ʁ ʕ̯/ in the modern standard (/ɕ/ is written either as <ś> or <hj> depending on the word). Some analyses of Standard Laceyiam do not count them as separate phonemes, but as realizations of the clusters /ɦɟ͡ʑ ɦv ɦʀ ɦɴ̆/ due to their behaviour in compounding, c.f. ni- prefix (/nʲi/) plus the root hjøðam "hand" (/ˈɕøðam/ or /ˈɦɟ͡ʑøðam/, pronounced [ˈɕøðam]) > nįjøðemė "weapon" (/ni̤ˈɟ͡ʑøðemeː/ [ni̤ˈɟ͡ʑøðemeː], with the usual morphological process where /ɦ/ vanishes, giving breathy-voiced phonation to the preceding vowel, when in coda).
• /θ ð/ only contrast intervocalically, after nasals, and before /ʀ ɴ̆/; otherwise they're in complementary distribution, with /θ/ word-initially and adjacent to voiceless consonants and /ð/ anywhere else.

Vowels

Laceyiam has a large vowel inventory consisting of 17 monophthongs and 9 diphthongs, for a total of 26 vowel phonemes. The word for vowel, camiyālia, is a compound of cami "great(er), important, supreme" and yālia "sound", reflecting how a vowel is the obligatory part of a syllable nucleus in Laceyiam.

	Front	Central	Back
High	ʲi ʲiː i iː i̤		u uː ṳ
High-mid	e eː ø
Low-mid	ɛ̤		ɔ
Near-low	æ
Low		a aː	ɑ̤
Diphthongs	ai̯ ei̯ æi̯ øʏ̯ a̤i̯ ɛ̤i̯		au̯ ui̯ a̤u̯

Standard Laceyiam has, for most vowels, a three-way distinction between oral short, oral long, and breathy-voiced: this applies to the [a], [e], [i], and [u] vowels. The other vowels do not have this distinction due to their historical development.

Please note that, for sake of simplicity, /ɛ̤ ɑ̤/ will be transcribed as /e̤ a̤/.

Notes about vowel phonemes:

• The distinction between palatalizing and non-palatalizing [i] sounds is peculiar of Standard Laceyiam and all Southern pronunciations. It is a result of the unrounding of Classical Laceyiam /y yː/, that made phonemic the then-allophonic palatalization of consonants before original /i iː/ (but not /i̤/). Most modern pronunciations actually keep the distinction between /y yː/ and /i iː/ (with or without allophonic palatalization). In Standard Laceyiam and all pronunciations with unrounding, however, retroflex and palatal consonants aren't distinguished anymore before Classical /y yː/ or /i iː/, as they didn't have allophonic palatalization.
• There is an additional diphthong /ɔu̯/ which is not considered phonemic due to it appearing only in Chlou, the (borrowed) name of the 14th largest city of Laltīmāhia, and derived/compounded words.

Grammar

Laceyiam grammar is heavily inflected, with many different inflecting categories for nouns, verbs, and pronouns. The other two traditional parts of speech, particles and numerals, are not considered inflected. An analysis of parts of speech following English terms is possible, but for sake of clarity it's better to treat adjectives and adverbs as particular verbs and adpositions and conjunctions as particles.

Nouns - Dayandairai

Nouns, or dayandairai (sing. dayandaira), are one of the two main open classes in Laceyiam. They are declined for two numbers - singular (paṃlinað) and plural (paṃdaniøgur) and eleven cases:

• Direct (klīṣādemin): core case used for the main argument of a verb (the one the verb agrees with); in addition, many particles require direct case nouns. Direct singular is the citation form of all nouns.
• Ergative (tairdemin): core case used for the agent of a verb in patientive, benefactive, antibenefactive, or locative voice.
• Accusative (mėniādemin): core case used for the patient of a verb in agentive, benefactive, antibenefactive, or locative voice.
• Genitive (jėmiādemin): case used for possessor arguments.
• Instrumental (khabdemin): case used for instrumental complements (e.g. "by means of X", "using X").
• Comitative (mahiegdemin): case used for complements of company (e.g. "with X", "together with X").
• Dative (mayėṃdemin): more accurately defined as Dative-Lative case, it is used for indirect objects (e.g. "I give X to Y"; dative use) and for the destination of motion verbs (lative use).
• Ablative (paraniādemin): used mostly for movement away from something, but also for various special word- or particle-specific uses.
• Locative (hlūðademin): used for locations (in any voice except locative) and punctual time.
• Substitutive (pārinėdmin): used to express "instead of X".
• Abessive (śądemin): used to express the lack of something (e.g. "without X").

Some nouns also have an additional vocative form, which is however not considered a case by itself, only a special form of the direct.

Nominal morphology is fusional, but there are some regular patterns that reflect the mostly agglutinative nature of Proto-Cis-Tahianshima noun morphology. There are nine declensions (paiktairathādai), each of them having a particular citation form ending, plus a few irregular nouns. Some declensions include regular sub-patterns for certain nouns in some forms.

All nouns also have inherent natural gender, but the Laceyiami gender system does not have morphological marking and is in fact more like a honorific system.

The first declension (-a, -ā, -au, -ia, -iā, -ie, -iė)

The first declension (lahīlam paiktairathāda) of Laceyiami nouns includes nouns ending in -a, -ā, -au, -ia, -iā, -ie, and -iė. This is the most common and the most regular declension - some other forms in other declensions have actually been modified by analogy with first declension forms.

ėmīla (tiger)	Singular	Plural
Direct	ėmīla	ėmīlai
Ergative	ėmīlass	ėmīlaiss
Accusative	ėmīlau	ėmīlarau
Genitive	ėmīli	ėmīlė
Instrumental	ėmīlu	ėmīlariu
Comitative	ėmīlanam	ėmīlarṇam
Dative	ėmīlað	ėmīlarið
Ablative	ėmīlų	ėmīląnie
Locative	ėmīlie	ėmīlilym
Substitutive	ėmīlamian	ėmīlarymian
Abessive	ėmīlatiak	ėmīlarytiak

Note that if the last vowel is long, it stays long everywhere as long as quality is the same (but ā > ai nevertheless, as diphthongs do not distinguish length); breathy-voiced phonation is likewise kept (if possible), thus nouns ending in a breathy-voiced vowel have the same form for instrumental and ablative singular.

The first declension has the following sub-patterns:

• Nouns ending in -au change this into -āva before any ending beginning with a vowel, so for example hīmuyau "husband of father's sister" has dir.pl. hīmuyāvai, erg.sg. hīmuyauss, acc.sg. hīmuyāvau ... com.sg. hīmuyaunam, and so on. Chlou, the only word with /ɔu̯/, may informally follow this pattern, but the official recommendation is to use compounds such as Chlou-marta "Chlou city" or Chlou-lila "Chlou person" in order to decline it or derive forms.
• Nouns ending in -ia, -iā, -ie, or -iė all have accusative singular in -vau (e.g. nahia "mountain" > nahiavau) genitive singular in -ei (nahia > nahei), ablative singular in -vų (nahia > nahiavų), locative singular in -ye (nahia > nahiaye); ergative plural in -lss (nahia > nahialss), genitive plural in -riė (nahia > nahiariė), and locative plural in -rilym (nahia > nahiarilym).
• Nouns ending in -ie and -iė also have substitutive singular in -imian (e.g. hulunamie "pregnancy" > hulunamimian) and abessive singular in -itiak (hulunamie > hulunamitiak).

heilenu "wind" is an irregular noun which, for the most part, follows the first declension, alternating between heilenu- stem and umlauted høylen- stem, the latter used in singular accusative, genitive, instrumental, locative, substitutive, and abessive, and in every plural form except instrumental, ablative and locative. Non-umlauted forms have /u/ replacing any /a/ in the "normal" first declension pattern, becoming breathy-voiced in ablative plural. Ablative singular is heilenų with a single, breathy-voiced /ṳ/; locative plural is heilenuilym, with the /ui̯/ diphthong.

The second declension (-e, -ė, -y, -ȳ, -u, -ū)

The second declension (daniende paiktairathāda) includes nouns ending with any of -e, -ė, -y, -ȳ, -u, or -ū, of course excluding those in -ie and -iė which are of the first declension.

kairė (smile)	Singular	Plural
Direct	kairė	kairei
Ergative	kairėss	kaireilss
Accusative	kairėyau	kairėrau
Genitive	kaireyi	kaireyė
Instrumental	kairūmi	kairėriu
Comitative	kairėnam	kairėrṇam
Dative	kairėð	kairėrið
Ablative	kairėhių	kairęnie
Locative	kairėhie	kaireilym
Substitutive	kairėmian	kairėrmian
Abessive	kairėtiak	kairėrtiak

As in the first declension, all final vowels remain long as long as quality is the same, with the exception of genitive case in both singular and plural. The sub-patterns of the second declension are:

• Nouns ending with the -līne collective derivational suffix have genitive singular -līni as if they were of the first declension instead of expected *-līneyi.
• Nouns ending in -y and -ȳ have genitive singular in -yvi (e.g. tammy "train" > tammyvi); direct plural in -r (tammy > tammyr), ergative plural in -ylss (> tammylss), genitive plural in -yvė (> tammyvė), ablative plural in -įnie (> tammįnie), and locative plural in -īlym (> tammīlym).
• Nouns ending in -iū (uncommon, but most notably jeniū "flower") have ablative singular in -ųu (jeniū > jeniųu) and various extended plural stems: direct in -ūyai (> jeniūyai), ergative -ūyilss (> jeniūyilss), accusative -ūyiau (> jeniūyiau), comitative -ūyinam (> jeniūyinam), dative -ūyið (> jeniūyið), and locative in -ūlym (> jeniūlym). In addition to these, they also keep the long vowel in genitive singular and plural (e.g. > jeniūyi, jeniūyė).

The third declension (-i)

The third declension (chīkende paiktairathāda) includes nouns ending in -i; they are however divided in two different sub-declensions depending on whether they take i-umlaut or not. Nouns taking i-umlaut have their root vowel in either a, ā, (both a1 or a2 types) u, or ū; umlaut is present in every form except direct, ergative, comitative and dative singular and ablative and locative plural.

tėti (island) (no umlaut)	Singular	Plural	gindāmi (book) (a1 umlaut)	Singular	Plural
Direct	tėti	tėtiar		gindāmi	gindämar
Ergative	tėtiss	tėtialss		gindāmiss	gindämalss
Accusative	tėtiau	tėtiarau		gindämau	gindämarau
Genitive	tėtiyei	tėtiė		gindämi	gindämė
Instrumental	tėtiu	tėtiariu		gindämu	gindämariu
Comitative	tėtinam	tėtiarṇam		gindāminam	gindämarṇam
Dative	tėtið	tėtiarið		gindāmið	gindämarið
Ablative	tėtių	tėtįnie		gindämų	gindāmįnie
Locative	tėtiye	tėtilym		gindämie	gindāmilym
Substitutive	tėtiamian	tėtiaumian		gindämamian	gindämaumian
Abessive	tėtiatiak	tėtiautiak		gindämatiak	gindämautiak

The fourth declension (ablauting nouns)

The fourth declension (bäliende paiktairathāda) is the least regular and the least common of all. It includes nouns which are a relic of the ablauting nouns, already somewhat archaic and unproductive in Proto-Cis-Tahianshima. Some linguists, however, argue that ablauting and non-ablauting nouns originally had a gender distinction on the basis that Laceyiam has some ablauting nouns which are words for animals native to Isungatsuaq - and thus unknown in PCT times - like kīva (a kind of capybara), linda (giant river otter), or gunta (marsh deer). These nouns are often either common words (like niyū "mother" or klut "father") or compounds with lila "person". Some of these also have irregularities (including niyū and lila, probably the two most common nouns of this declension) or some cases with more possible forms. Nouns with /j/-stems are the most complicated in the whole Laceyiam language due to extensive umlaut on top of ablauting vowels.

These words generally all have two syllables, where the first one's vowel is the ablauting one and the latter one is an open syllable which ends in -a; /j/-stems are generally trisyllabic, ending in -eya; there are however some polysyllabic words, which either ablaut the first vowel (e.g. kimeda (a type of panther)) or the penultimate (e.g. havtnamila (office/ministry of the Inquisition)).

There are four non-umlauted vowel patterns, which reflect different pitch accents of the original Proto-Cis-Tahianshima word:

Type	"Singular" stem	"Short non-tonic" stem	"Short tonic" stem	"Long" stem	"Strong" stem
4.1	u (< *u₁)	a	o	ė	au
4.2	u (< *u₂)	a	/j/u	ā	au
4.3	i (< *i₁)	e	e	ei	ai
4.4	i (< *i₂)	e	ei	ie	ai

The five different stems are used with this distribution:

• The Singular stem is used in every singular form except genitive;
• The Short non-tonic stem is used in direct, instrumental, and ablative plural;
• The Short tonic stem is used in ergative and dative plural;
• The Long stem is used in the genitive singular and in accusative, comitative, substitutive, and abessive plural;
• The Strong stem is used in genitive and locative plural.

muða (puddle) (4.1)	Singular	Plural	klut (father) (4.2)	Singular	Plural
Direct	muða	maðiė		klut	klatiė
Ergative	muðass	moðiss		klutass	kliutiss
Accusative	muðau	mėðau		klutau	klātau
Genitive	mėði	mauðė		klāti	klautė
Instrumental	muðū	maðū		klutū	klatū
Comitative	muðanam	mėðnam		klutanam	klātnam
Dative	muðað	moðið		klutað	kliutið
Ablative	muðų	maðnie		klutų	klatnie
Locative	muðie	mauðilym		klutie	klautilym
Substitutive	muðamian	mėðumian		klutamian	klātumian
Abessive	muðatiak	mėðutiak		klutatiak	klātutiak

lila (person) (4.3)	Singular	Plural	niyū, nih- (mother) (4.4)	Singular	Plural
Direct	lila	leliė		niyū	niyė
Ergative	lilss	lelss		nįss	nęiss
Accusative	lilau	løyl *		nihau	niehau
Genitive	leili	lailė		nęi *	naihė
Instrumental	lilū	leliū		nihū	nehū
Comitative	lilanam	leilinam		nįnam	nięnam
Dative	lilað	läylið *		nihað	neihið
Ablative	lyl *	leiląnie		nihų	nęenie
Locative	lilie	laililym		nihie	naihilym
Substitutive	lilamian	løylumian *		nihamian	niehumian
Abessive	lilatiak	løylutiak *		nihatiak	niehutiak

As mentioned before, both lila and niyū are irregular nouns, but, being both extremely common nouns, both alone and in compounds, the inclusion of their paradigm as being representative of 4.3 and 4.4 nouns is this way justified. They differ from regular nouns in:

• 4.3 nouns have ablative singular with -ų and the singular stem, like aʔīma (a freshwater crustacean of the flooded rainforest in Southern Laltīmāhia) > aʔīmų; accusative plural with ei-au (> aʔeimau), dative plural e-ið (> aʔemið) and substitutive and abessive plural with ei-umian/ei-utiak (> aʔeimumian; aʔeimutiak - note that these two cases' forms are based on the accusative plural). The regular ablative singular lilų and the plural accusative leilau (and substitutive leilumian and abessive leilutiak) are however attested as variant forms of the declension of lila in some literary texts, particularly those composed until the 1st century of the Third Era in modern-day Hjøtūchilām diocese.
• lila has a peculiar, but predictable, behaviour in ergative singular and plural, that is the lack of any vowel between the l and the ss, and -iū in the instrumental plural. This happens for every fourth- and seventh-declension noun ending in -l or -la.
• niyū has an irregular direct case for both numbers, otherwise it's regular but with the stem nih- (alternations between -h and a breathy-voiced vowel are all regular). Genitive nęi is the only other irregular form, by simplification of earlier (attested in the early Classical Age) nięi. A regular 4.4 noun, dlīsa "rift, breaking point, limit, abrupt end, edge of a cliff" has direct plural dleśiė and genitive singular dlieśi (with a regular s > ś before i saṃdhi change).

/j/-stem nouns

As mentioned before, /j/-stem nouns are the most complex regular nouns in Laceyiam due to having both ablaut and umlaut variations. Their complexity is however relative due to the fact there are only eleven such root nouns (most of them ending in unstressed -eya), here divided based on their pattern:

• 4.1 - ńūńeya “storm”; jūleya “fruit”; luleya “basket”; tumiya (a fruiting palm common on Tāhiańśīma, the eastern islands, and southwestern Isungatsuaq); bhūveya (a crown made of flowers, leaves, and twigs, ritually worn in some important ceremonies).
• 4.2 - buneya “female’s older sister”; yūnia “nature, God, divinity; the manifestation of everything according to Yūnialtei worldview”; ḍumbiya “reflection of sunlight in water”; mūhiya “hair” (singular with plural sense, its own plural refers to hair of more people, or “body hair” generically); kulteya "the sound of feet walking in water".
• Irregular umlaut / 4.3 ablaut - mitū “(human) body” (stem mituy-).

ńūńeya (storm) (4.1)	Singular	Plural	buneya (f/ older sister) (4.2)	Singular	Plural
Direct	ńūńeya	ńøńiė		buneya	bøniė
Ergative	ńūńeiss	ńońeiss		buneiss	biuneiss
Accusative	ńūńeyau	ńėńeyau		buneyau	bāneyau
Genitive	ńėńei	ńøyńė		bønei	bøynė
Instrumental	ńȳńū	ńańeyū		bynū	baneyū
Comitative	ńȳńenam	ńėńeinam		bynenam	bønenam
Dative	ńūńeyað	ńońeið		buneyað	biuneið
Ablative	ńūńeyų	ńäńęnie		buneyų	bänęnie
Locative	ńȳńie	ńauńeilym		bynie	bauneilym
Substitutive	ńȳńimian	ńėńiumian		bynimian	bāniumian
Abessive	ńȳńitiak	ńėńiutiak		bynitiak	bāniutiak

mitū, mituy- (body) (4.3/irr)	Singular	Plural
Direct	mitū	metiė
Ergative	mitūss	metyss
Accusative	mitøy	meitøy
Genitive	meity	mäytė
Instrumental	mitøyū	metøyū
Comitative	mitūnam	meitūnam
Dative	mitūð	metūð
Ablative	mituyų	meitųnie
Locative	mitøye	mäytulym
Substitutive	mitūmian	meitymian
Abessive	mitūtiak	meitytiak

We can thus describe that 4.1 /j/-stem nouns have umlaut in instrumental, comitative, locative, substitutive, and abessive singular, and direct, genitive, and ablative plural; as for 4.2 /j/-stem nouns, they have umlaut in genitive, instrumental, comitative, locative, substitutive, and abessive singular, and in direct, genitive, comitative, and ablative plural.

The fifth declension (one-stem nasals)

The fifth declension (gembliende paiktairathāda) includes all nasal nouns (those ending in -n or -m) with a single stem, that is, the majority of them - two-stem nasal nouns are those of the sixth declension.

hjøðam (hand)	Singular	Plural
Direct	hjøðam	hjøðamai
Ergative	hjøðaṃss	hjøðamulss
Accusative	hjøðamau	hjøðaṃrau
Genitive	hjøðami	hjøðamė
Instrumental	hjøðamu	hjøðamariu
Comitative	hjøðaṃnam	hjøðamarṇam
Dative	hjøðamað	hjøðaṃrið
Ablative	hjøðamų	hjøðamęnie
Locative	hjøðamie	hjøðamilym
Substitutive	hjøðammian	hjøðaṃrumian
Abessive	hjøðantiak	hjøðaṃrutiak

There are two differences between nouns ending in -m and those in -n: the first one is saṃdhi, that is, -n nouns have -nnam in comitative singular and -ṃmian in substitutive singular (e.g. mėngerten "morning" > mėngertennam; mėngerteṃmian). The other difference is that -n noun have ergative plural in -alss (> mėngertenalss)

The sixth declension (two-stem nasals)

The sixth declension (tulūʔende paiktairathāda), as mentioned before, includes two-stem nasals: this declension is similar to the fifth one, but these nouns have a -s between the -m and the ending in all forms except ergative plural and direct, ergative, comitative, substitutive, and abessive singular.

Most of these nouns are formed with the derivational suffix -ram (-lam in some nouns due to dissimilation), often referring to "the process of doing X"; the -s is a relic from the original PCT form in *-roms. Many nouns, though, have been added to this declension only by analogy: some of the most common ones are saṃhāram "boy", bheiram "nest", koram "autumn/fall" and yāram "land (especially in many toponyms)". 

The noun sūgnulum "blind", while etymologically a sixth declension one (< PCT *tsu₁ɣ-ŋʷoħūm-s "without eye(s)"), is often declined as a fifth declension one. 

lillam (life)	Singular	Plural
Direct	lillam	lillaṃsai
Ergative	lillaṃss	lillamulss
Accusative	lillaṃsau	lillaṃśiau
Genitive	lillaṃśi	lillaṃsė
Instrumental	lillaṃṣu	lillaṃśayu
Comitative	lillaṃnam	lillaṃsarṇam
Dative	lillaṃsað	lillaṃṣrið
Ablative	lillaṃsų	lillaṃsęnie
Locative	lillaṃśie	lillaṃśilym
Substitutive	lillammian	lillaṃṣrumian
Abessive	lillantiak	lillaṃṣrutiak

The seventh declension (consonant-stem nouns)

The seventh declension (hauþtinde paiktairathāda) is a common one including basically all consonant-stem nouns, that is, one of those ending in non-nasal consonants except -h. Possible endings are -ð, -t, -ṭ and -r, and there are also only five nouns (and their compounds) ending in -l: līṭhal "seafoam", khāngertėl (a typical Chlegdarim tandoori oven), nūrtāl "lake", ladragyal "inn, restaurant", and kambāl "thousand". This is also one of the two declensions with a distinct vocative singular form, made by adding -e to the direct singular.

bhārmat (lion)	Singular	Plural
Direct	bhārmat	bhārmatai
(Vocative)	bhārmate !	bhārmatai !
Ergative	bhārmatass	bhārmatalss
Accusative	bhārmatau	bhārmaṭau
Genitive	bhārmati	bhārmatė
Instrumental	bhārmatu	bhārmatariu
Comitative	bhārmatanam	bhārmatarṇam
Dative	bhārmatið	bhārmatarið
Ablative	bhārmatų	bhārmatęnie
Locative	bhārmatie	bhārmatilym
Substitutive	bhārmatmian	bhārmaṭumian
Abessive	bhārmattiak	bhārmaṭutiak

Consonant-stem nouns all follow the same pattern as bhārmat, but there are some differences between them due to saṃdhi and/or dissimilation:

• As seen with bhārmat, all t-stems have -ṭau, -ṭumian, -ṭutiak for plural accusative/substitutive/abessive respectively. All other stems except r-stems (see below) have -Crau, -Crumian, -Crutiak (the t-stem forms are actually contractions).
• ð-stems have dative singular in -við instead of *-ðið (e.g. hlūð "place, seat, location" > hlūvið) and abessive singular in -þiak due to assimilation (> hlūþiak). Also, in comitative singular the -a- at the beginning of the ending is optional (> hlūðanam and hlūðnam are both acceptable, but the first one is more common).
• r-stems have two different dissimilations: accusative, substitutive, and abessive plural have -rl- instead of *-rr- (e.g. leiðir "significant other, girlfriend, boyfriend" > leiðirlau, leiðirlumian, leiðirlutiak), while instrumental, comitative and dative plural have -lar- instead of *-rar- (> leiðilariu, leiðilarṇam, leiðilarið).
• l-stems have -lss instead of *-lass in ergative singular (e.g. nūrtāl "lake" > nūrtālss).

There is a subset of seventh declension nouns which do not fit into the above pattern because they have two different stems, one for the direct singular (and vocative) and one (the oblique stem) for all other forms. These nouns are relics of PCT nouns with hysterokinetic stress:

• khial "finger; small tree branch", oblique stem kheld-
• lān "shoulder", oblique ṇod-
• läyh "arm", oblique lahʲ- (before vowels) / lahi- (before consonants)
• miu "leg", oblique may- (before vowels) / ma- (before consonants)
• naih "boat", oblique naṣṭ-
• tið "neck", oblique śv-

śvað "thread, path, theme, idea, direction" is an irregular noun mostly following the seventh declension. It has a contracted stem śvað found in singular direct (with vocative śvaþe), accusative, genitive, instrumental, dative (śvaþið) and substitutive, and ablative plural. All other forms use an extended stem śvatoð, but abessive singular and genitive plural are synchronically irregular śvateþiak, śvateðė respectively; substitutive and abessive plural are śvatoðarmian and śvatoðartiak respectively, and dative plural is attested both in the regular form śvatoðarið and the irregular śvatoþrið.

Finally, there are a few nouns ending in -k; these are all Calémerian toponyms borrowed from Kalurilut, like Inūkutlāk "Ceria", Inūlulīk "Nivaren", Itanāk "Nordúlik", Inūkṣvāk "Evandor", or Ittukavik "Gathuráni" - these are all declined following the t-stem rules (without the special rule for plural accusative/substitutive/abessive). Also, some non-assimilated toponyms for cities, rivers, or other features outside Laltīmāhia may end in -k, but they are usually not declined, instead adpositional constructions like [name] ga marta "city of [name]" is used, with marta being the declined word.

The eighth declension (-h)

The eighth declension (teitende paiktairathāda) includes nouns ending in -h. Word-final -h is a result of many sound changes, but mostly from PCT *s, so either -s, or /hj/ (the intervocalic reflex of PCT *s) alternate in most forms. Like the seventh declension, eighth-declension nouns have a distinct vocative singular form.

ńältah ((male's) sister)	Singular	Plural
Direct	ńältah	ńältahiai
(Vocative)	ńältahie !	ńältahiai !
Ergative	ńältass	ńältahialss
Accusative	ńältasau	ńältahiarau
Genitive	ńältahi	ńältahiė
Instrumental	ńältahiu	ńältaṣriu
Comitative	ńältasanam	ńältahiarṇam
Dative	ńältaśve	ńältahiarið
Ablative	ńältasų	ńältasęnie
Locative	ńältahiye	ńältaśilym
Substitutive	ńältąmian	ńältahiarmian
Abessive	ńältątiak	ńältahiartiak

There are some eighth declension nouns which have obsolete forms, declining as if they were seventh declension with a stem ending in -k; this is visible in nanūh "salt" which has a relic form nanūkanam (from the comitative singular) used attributively to mean "salted" when speaking of foods (this is etymological: nanūh is actually a borrowing from Ancient Lelīmuyāńi nanūkko and is attested in some early-Classical Age Laceyiam texts as nanūk - -k was actually a possible noun ending until approximately the late First Era).

Note that the noun lilėmaiṭah, the most important concept in the Yūnialtei religion (and, due to this, in the whole Chlegdarim worldview), is an irregular, singular-only noun and declines as eighth-declension in direct, genitive, instrumental and locative cases, and as a first-declension noun (with stem lilėmaiṭą-) elsewhere; it also lacks a vocative form.

The ninth declension (-ai)

The ninth declension (kissende paiktairathāda) includes those nouns ending in -ai; they come from various sources but only a minority of them is inherited from PCT: most are Nanaklāri or Ancient Lelīmuyāńi borrowings.

nanai (rainforest, jungle)	Singular	Plural
Direct	nanai	nanayar
Ergative	nanaiss	nanayalss
Accusative	nanayau	nanairau
Genitive	nanayi	nanayė
Instrumental	nanayu	nanaiyu
Comitative	nanayanam	nanayarṇam
Dative	nanaið	nanairað
Ablative	nanąu	nanąinie
Locative	nanayie	nanailym
Substitutive	nanaimian	nanayarmian
Abessive	nanaitiak	nanayartiak

Verbs - Smārjāmai

The Laceyiami verb (smārjām or pantäyra, pl. smārjāmai or pantäyrai) is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Cis-Tahianshima particles or participles.

The first and most important division we can find in Laceyiami verbs is the distinction between exterior (bhėmabessa) and interior (niėmabessa) verbs. This may at first seem a voice system, but it must be distinguished from the true voices in Laceyiam conjugation. The difference between them is mostly lexical: native grammarians distinguish exterior verbs as describing "activities or states that involve interactions with outside the self", and interior verbs as affecting principally the self. Exterior verbs are those we could most easily compare to active verbs in English, while interior verbs are a somewhat "catch-all" category including many distinct meanings, most notably middle-voice, reflexive and reciprocal ones but also all adjectival verbs as well as peculiar and somewhat independent meanings for some verbs. As many verbs can be conjugated both as exterior and as interior; they often have differences in meaning - e.g. gṇyauke means “to give birth” as exterior and “to be born” as interior.

Laceyiam verbs also conjugate for five voices, each one putting one of five different core elements as the direct-case argument, usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of Laceyiam. The five voices are, for exterior verbs:

• patient-trigger or patientive (unmarked);
• agent-trigger or agentive;
• benefactive-trigger or simply benefactive;
• antibenefactive-trigger or simply antibenefactive;
• locative-trigger or simply locative.

Interior verbs only have four voices, as they do not have an agentive voice; the patientive, unmarked voice, is here called common voice. There is also an instrumental form, but it is independent of voice despite having much in common with them.

Laceyiami verbs also conjugate for five different tense-aspect combinations, representing two different aspects (perfective and imperfective) and three tenses proper (past, present, future). The imperfective tenses are the present, the imperfect, and the future; the perfective tenses are the past and the pluperfect. Tenses are the “basic unit” verbs conjugate in: all tenses conjugate for six persons (1st-2nd-3rd in singular and plural).

However, the most complex part of Laceyiami verbs is the mood. Laceyiam is particularly mood-heavy and its concept of mood is quite broad, conjugating verbs in what are called primary moods and secondary moods; a single verb form may have a single primary mood but up to two secondary moods. 

The ten primary moods are:

• indicative - the realis mood;
• imperative - used for giving orders or commands;
• desiderative - used to express a desire or will (e.g. I want to X);
• necessitative - used to express need or obligation (e.g. I have to X);
• potential - used to express the ability to do something (e.g. I can [= am able to] X)
• permissive - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X)
• optative - used to express wishes or hopes;
• propositive - used to express proposals (e.g. let’s X; why don’t you X);
• hypothetical - used to express things that may happen or might have happened;
• subjunctive - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), and also syntactically conditioned by some particles.

The eight secondary moods are:

• five of them express evidentiality, namely: certainty (also energetic mood), deduction, dream, specifically invented situation, and hearsay (also inferential mood);
• interrogative, used for questions;
• two consequential moods: one expressing cause (e.g. “because X”), the other opposition (e.g. “although X”).

Laceyiami verbs also have two non-finite forms (the -ke form (or simply the infinitive) and the -ę form) and a small number of preverbal modifiers that add a particular meaning to the verb (the most common is sų-, used to negate verbs).

Finally, Laceyiam has a large number of attributive and adverbial participles, with forms for most voices and tenses and a distinction into modal adverbs, homofocal gerundives and heterofocal gerundives.

Conjugations

Verbs, in Laceyiam, are divided in four conjugations. They are easily distinguished by their infinitive ending, which is the citation form of the verb. The main difference between them is the thematic vowel added to the stem.

• The first conjugation uses /a/ as the thematic vowel and includes infinitives ending in -ake or -aike; this latter class is identified as 1ai and has a different behaviour in the past tense. This is probably the most common conjugation, also because that's the one most denominal suffixes use.
• The second conjugation uses /e/ as the thematic vowel, and its infinitives end in -eke.
• The third conjugation uses /i/ (Classical /y/) as the thematic vowel, and its infinitives end in -yke.
• The fourth conjugation has no thematic vowel and as such it includes two categories of verbs: those with consonant-final roots, which have an infinitive ending in a consonant plus -ke (or, rarely, because of saṃdhi, -ge), and those with vowel-final roots, whose infinitive end in a vowel plus -ke. Note that there are some verbs - like nake "to think" - where a final /a e i/ is part of the root and not a thematic vowel, and may be mistaken at first for verbs belonging to other conjugations. A few fourth conjugation verbs also have allomorphic roots depending on whether the added ending begins with a vowel or with a consonant, like gṇyauke "to give birth/to be born" (root gṇyāv-/gṇyau-).

Apart from these four conjugations, there are some completely irregular verbs (e.g. haiske "to be", milke "to take") and also six regular sub-patterns in some tenses, three of which are independent from the four regular conjugation patterns (that is, those verbs may be of any of them in the other tenses). They are all relics of independent aspect formations from PCT:

• -ah verbs, which add -ah or -ą to the root while forming their present tense - most notably lilke "to live".
• -st- verbs, which add -st in the present tense - the most common is męlyke "to give".
• -ėyi- verbs, which add -ėyi- (stressed) to the root in the present - like hūrtake "to shake, tremble, vibrate".
• -au-/-ei- verbs, counted as first conjugation (with infinitives in -auke), have an -au- stem-ending suffix in the present which becomes -ei- in the past - they are relics of a regular PCT derivation forming dynamic verbs. Examples are meinauke "to watch" or blinauke "to remember".
• -āti-/-it- verbs are all counted as fourth conjugation (infinitives in -ātike) and have an -āti- stem-ending suffix in the present which becomes -it- in the past - like yihātike "to understand".
• -ėra- verbs are first conjugation verbs, which are extremely common as -ėra- is the main verb-forming denominal suffix in Laceyiam. They use slightly different endings from other verbs of the same conjugations - compare for example keipavið "you go" and paiktāṃliėryð "you climb a tree".

Bulṭāṇama verbs

Bulṭāṇama (pl. bulṭāṇamai, meaning "with mutation") is a class of thirty base verbs which have a vowel mutation in their present stem. These are actually the relics of the Proto-Cis-Tahianshima ablaut system, particularly the middle-grade presents and the high-grade presents.
In a Laceyiam perspective, they are divided in middle bulṭāṇamai, where the modified vowel is a monophthong, and strong bulṭāṇamai, where the modified vowel is a diphthong (note that i → ei verbs count as strong in this classification, but were actually middle-grade in PCT). The twenty-three middle bulṭāṇamai have these changes:

• i → e: liśvake (to wipe), priśvake (to erase, to turn off, to shut down), hįlsake (to make a sound), ṭilbake (to carry (multidirectional)), limbake (to refresh, to quench thirst, to nourish), mįldake (to hope, to wish (interior only)), mįṃke (to catch — also an -ėyi- verb), minge (to hear — the root is mind-), dinge (to pour — root dig-), skilgake (to cross rough terrain), and giske (to take away, to seize, to capture, to kidnap).
• u → i: murjake (to keep inside, to contain), bulṭake (to change, to modify), ṣurgake (to feel indifference for something you barely know because you haven't thought about it enough (interior only)), kurṣṭake (to rot, to make rot), bųlake (to plow), nurgake (to itch), and nurbake (to shake).
• u → y: pultake (to lean), kulke (to talk, to chat), ḍurke (to crumble, to collapse), kusake (to peck), and prudhake (to tear apart).

The seven strong bulṭāṇamai are:

• i → ai: kirake (to love), lįnake (to stay, to remain), and bringe (to hinder, to obstruct — root brind-).
• i → ei: only pirake (to swallow).
• u → au: gurvyake (to sleep), bhuvake (to care for someone), and spunake (to poison).

These verbs conjugate regularly except for this vowel change in the present indicative stem only, for example leśvar (it is wept) and liśvat (it was wept), or kairu (I am loved) and kiram (I was loved) — note the regular saṃdhi change in ṣurgake: śirgāmiss (pres. 1sg) vs ṣurgamin (past 1sg).

Indicative present and imperative

The indicative present and the imperative use, for most verbs, the same stem. In the indicative present, apart from the four regular patterns, -ah-, -st-, -ėyi-, and -ėra- verbs are distinguished. The following table is the conjugation for regular verbs in the indicative present, exterior, patient-trigger voice:

	pūnake (to work)	hväldeke (to choose)	läðlyke (to help)	ūtiraṃke (to write)	lilke (to live)	męlyke (to give)	humbėrake (to spice)	hūrtake (to shake)
1SG	pūnu	hväldėyu	läðlȳ	ūtiramiu	lilah	męlściu	humbėriu	hūrtėyiu
2SG	pūnavið	hväldevið	läðlyvið	ūtiramvið	liląvið	męlścið	humbėryð	hūrtėyið
3SG	pūnar	hvälder	läðlyr	ūtiramar	lilah	męlstar	humbėrar	hūrtėyir
1PL	pūnasām	hväldesām	läðlysām	ūtiraṃsām	lilahām	męlstisām	humbėrisām	hūrtėyisām
2PL	pūnakām	hväldekām	läðlykām	ūtiraṃkām	liląkām	męlstām	humbėrikām	hūrtėyikām
3PL	pūnathās	hväldethās	läðlythās	ūtiraṃthās	lilaṣṭhās	męlstathās	humbėrathās	hūrtėyithās

The only different pattern applies to the first person singular in the first and fourth conjugation: roots which end in -l, -m, -v, -c, -ch, or, for fourth conjugation verbs, in a vowel, use -iu; all others use just -u (notice both forms in pūn-u and ūtiram-iu). A particular trait of speakers from some parts of Eastern Laltīmāhia, including rural Nėniyūkat diocese (but not the urban area of Nanūhimarta), is the pronunciation of the first person singular of -ėyi- verbs as [ˈeːjiju], which is sometimes reflected in writing (c.f. hūrtėyiu > hūrtėyiyu), especially in novels or comics, in order to stress a rural Eastern origin of certain characters. -ėyiyu was however sometimes found in early Classical Age texts.

The following table is the conjugation of patient-trigger exterior imperatives (-st- and -ėyi- verbs are not distinguished here): 

	pūnake (to work)	hväldeke (to choose)	läðlyke (to help)	ūtiraṃke (to write)	lilke (to live)	humbėrake (to spice)
1SG	pūnāṣa	hväldāṣa	läðlāṣa	ūtiramāṣa	liląuṣa	humbėrāṣa
2SG	pūn	hvälde	läðly	ūtiram	lilą	humbėra
3SG	pūnās	hväldās	läðlās	ūtiramās	liląs	humbėrās
1PL	pūnaraṭhā	hvälderaṭhā	läðlyraṭhā	ūtiraṃrathā	liląraṭhā	humbėrathā
2PL	pūnę	hväldę	läðlę	ūtiramę	lilahę	humbėrę
3PL	pūnethi	hväldithi	läðlithi	ūtiramithi	lilęthi	humbėrithi

First person singular imperatives (which derive from PCT subjunctive endings) describe a strong obligation. Second person singular imperatives in the four regular patterns actually have a zero-ending (as in pūn); the final vowel is always the thematic one of the conjugation and appears following these rules:

• The root ends in any consonant cluster except -ss, -ṃss, or -lss.
• The root ends in any single consonant except for nasals, unaspirated voiceless stops (but -c and -ʔ do require a vowel), -s, -ð, -h, -r, or -l.
• Fourth conjugation verbs almost always use -i as the added vowel, but -u after labial consonants, sibilants, -ʔ, and -r.

The forms for interior verbs distinguish the same stem types. Note that "to be" is omitted in the translation for verbs that are translated into English by adjectives in order to save space; [rf/rc] means that the English verb translated is reflexive or reciprocal: 

	khārake (new)	läyveke (small)	mālkyke (tall, high)	bhāṇḍatke (to hide [rf/rc])	lälekke (to believe in oneself)	primęlyke (to return)	huʔake (to have hiccough)
1SG	khārāmiss	läyvemiss	mālkymiss	bhāṇḍatmiss	lälekąmiss	primęlstamiss	huʔėyimiss
2SG	khārąus	läyvąus	mālkiąus	bhāṇḍatąus	lälekąus	primęlstąus	huʔėyiąus
3SG	khārąu	läyvąu	mālkiąu	bhāṇḍatąu	lälekahąu	primęlstąu	huʔėyiąu
1PL	khāraśię	läyveśię	mālkyśię	bhāṇḍacię	lälekąśię	primęlstiśię	huʔėyiśię
2PL	khārakię	läyvekię	mālkykię	bhāṇḍaktię	lälekąkię	primęlstię	huʔėyikię
3PL	khāradhį	läyvedhį	mālkydhį	bhāṇḍandhį	lälekądhį	primęlstadhį	huʔėyidhį

Note that the plural forms of bhāṇḍatke are morphemically bhāṇḍat-śię, bhāṇḍat-kię, bhāṇḍat-dhį, regularly modified by saṃdhi. As for meanings, primęlyke (a prefixed derivation from męlyke "to give"), means "to return" as interior but "to give back" as exterior. -ėra- verbs are not included to save space, as the only difference from regular first conjugation verbs is the short vowel (-amiss instead of -āmiss; compare khārāmiss "I am new" and śeimėramiss "I am poor").

In colloquial speech, the -ąu ending may be substituted by the lone thematic vowel in the first three conjugations, so, for example, it's fairly common to hear forms like tami khāra instead of tami khārąu for "it is new".

Interior imperative forms have even less variation between the various conjugations than the exterior forms: 

	khārake (new)	läyveke (small)	mālkyke (tall, high)	bhāṇḍatke (to hide [rf/rc])	lälekke (to believe in oneself)	śeimėrake (poor)
1SG	khārālss	läyvālss	mālkālss	bhāṇḍatālss	lälekąulss	śeimėrālss
2SG	khārāmbi	läyvāmbi	mālkāmbi	bhāṇḍatāmbi	lälekąmbi	śeimėrambi
3SG	khārøt	läyvøt	mālkøt	bhāṇḍatøt	lälekąut	śeimėrøt
1PL	khārarṭhį	läyverṭhį	mālkyrṭhį	bhāṇḍaturṭhį	lälekąrṭhį	śeimėrṭhį
2PL	khārėnį	läyvėnį	mālkėnį	bhāṇḍatėnį	lälekahęn	śeimėręn
3PL	khārendį	läyvendį	mālkendį	bhāṇḍatendį	lälekendį	śeimėrendį

The first person plural form in fourth conjugation verbs has the insertion of a vowel in order to prevent consonant clusters; the vowel is -i in most cases, except after sibilants, labial stops, and dental stops, where it is -u (like in bhāṇḍat-u-rṭhį).

Indicative past perfective

The indicative past perfective (simply called past) is regularly formed with a different set of terminations from the present. There are distinct forms for the four conjugation, but with the distinction between "regular" 1st conjugation verbs in -a and those in -ai. The following table is the conjugation for regular verbs in the indicative past, exterior, patient-trigger voice:

	pūnake (to work)	kaitmaike (to study)	hväldeke (to choose)	läðlyke (to help)	ūtiraṃke (to write)
1SG	pūnam	kaitmāyam	hväldem	läðlym	ūtiramum
2SG	pūnað	kaitmāyað	hväldeð	läðlyð	ūtiramuð
3SG	pūnat	kaitmāyat	hväldet	läðlyt	ūtiramut
1PL	pūnisė	kaitmaisė	hväldeisė	läðlisė	ūtiramisė
2PL	pūnikė	kaitmaikė	hväldeikė	läðlikė	ūtiramikė
3PL	pūnithė	kaitmaithė	hväldeithė	läðlithė	ūtiramithė

The rules for the epenthetic vowel in the fourth conjugation are the same used in the interior imperative, but -m takes epenthetic u instead of i.

The indicative interior patient-trigger past is easily derived from the exterior forms:

	khārake (new)	cāṃkraike (to end (intr), limit, border)	läyveke (small)	mālkyke (tall, high)	bhāṇḍatke (to hide [rf/rc])
1SG	khāramin	cāṃkrāyamin	läyvemin	mālkymin	bhāṇḍatmin
2SG	khāraðin	cāṃkrāyaðin	läyveðin	mālkyðin	bhāṇḍaþin
3SG	khāratin	cāṃkrāyatin	läyvetin	mālkytin	bhāṇḍattin
1PL	khārisān	cāṃkraisān	läyvėsān	mālkysān	bhāṇḍatisān
2PL	khārikhān	cāṃkraikhān	läyvėkhān	mālkykhān	bhāṇḍatikhān
3PL	khārithān	cāṃkraithān	läyvėthān	mālkythān	bhāṇḍatithān

Note the regular saṃdhi change bhāṇḍat-ðin > bhāṇḍaþin.

Indicative past imperfective

The indicative past imperfective (or simply the imperfect) uses yet another termination set. Here, -ėra- verbs are somewhat different from the other first conjugation ones. This table shows regular verbs in the indicative imperfect, exterior, patient-trigger voice:

	pūnake (to work)	kaitmaike (to study)	hväldeke (to choose)	läðlyke (to help)	ūtiraṃke (to write)	humbėrake (to spice)
1SG	pūnāmisu	kaitmaumisu	hväldėmisu	läðlymisu	ūtiramumisu	humbėrumisu
2SG	pūnāmið	kaitmaumið	hväldėmið	läðlymið	ūtiramumið	humbėrumið
3SG	pūnāmįt	kaitmaumįt	hväldėmįt	läðlymįt	ūtiramumįt	humbėrumįt
1PL	pūnäṃsė	kaitmäṃsė	hväldäṃsė	läðlūmīsė	ūtiramumīsė	humbėrumīsė
2PL	pūnänik	kaitmänik	hväldänik	läðlūmik	ūtiramumik	humbėrumik
3PL	pūnändė	kaitmändė	hväldändė	läðlūmīdė	ūtiramumīdė	humbėrumīdė

In all fourth conjugation forms, the -u is part of the ending, with regular saṃdhi: after any ending root vowel that is not -u or -i, a -v- is inserted; -i u- form -iu-, while -u u- form -ū-.

The indicative interior patient-trigger imperfect is as follows:

	khārake (new)	cāṃkraike (to end (intr), limit, border)	läyveke (small)	mālkyke (tall, high)	bhāṇḍatke (to hide [rf/rc])	śėimėrake (poor)
1SG	khārāmisen	cāṃkraumisen	läyvėmisen	mālkymisen	bhāṇḍatumisen	śeimėrumisen
2SG	khārāmiðen	cāṃkraumiðen	läyvėmiðen	mālkymiðen	bhāṇḍatumiðen	śeimėrumiðen
3SG	khārāmęn	cāṃkraumęn	läyvėmęn	mālkymęn	bhāṇḍatumęn	śeimėrumęn
1PL	khāräṃsan	cāṃkräṃsan	läyväṃsan	mālkūmīsan	bhāṇḍatumīsan	śeimėrumīsan
2PL	khāräkan	cāṃkräkan	läyväkan	mālkūmian	bhāṇḍatumian	śeimėrumian
3PL	khārändan	cāṃkrändan	läyvändan	mālkūmīdan	bhāṇḍatumīdan	śeimėrumīdan

Indicative future and pluperfect tenses

The indicative future is an imperfective-aspect tense and it is completely regular in all conjugations, with only a small difference between first, second, and all other conjugations. All conjugations take the infinitive (-ke form) without the final -e (so stem + -k), but first and second conjugations (except for -aike, -auke and -ātike infinitives) do not have that -k. Then, regular endings are added. The following table shows the indicative future, exterior, patient-trigger voice, with first, second and third conjugation (fourth conjugation, -aike, -auke, and -ātike verbs all conjugate like the third): 

	pūnake (to work)	hväldeke (to choose)	läðlyke (to help)
1SG	pūnaiṣām	hväldeiṣām	läðlykiṣām
2SG	pūnaiṣāð	hväldeiṣāð	läðlykiṣāð
3SG	pūnaiṣār	hväldeiṣār	läðlykiṣār
1PL	pūnaikṣām	hväldeikṣām	läðlykikṣām
2PL	pūnaikṣāð	hväldeikṣāð	läðlykikṣāð
3PL	pūnaiṣṭhās	hväldeiṣṭhās	läðlykiṣṭhās

The same pattern is used for the interior forms: 

	khārake (new)	läyveke (small)	mālkyke (tall, high)
1SG	khāraiṣmān	läyveiṣmān	mālkykiṣmān
2SG	khārairdān	läyveirdān	mālkykirdān
3SG	khāraiṣrān	läyveiṣrān	mālkykiṣrān
1PL	khāraikṣmān	läyveikṣmān	mālkykikṣmān
2PL	khāraikṣeðān	läyveikṣeðān	mālkykikṣeðān
3PL	khāraiṣṭhąn	läyveiṣṭhąn	mālkykiṣṭhąn

The pluperfect tense is formed in the same way but it is even simpler, as all conjugations keep that final -k before the endings. In this table for indicative patient-trigger pluperfect, pūnake shows the exterior forms and khārake the interior ones:

	pūnake (to work)	khārake (new)
1SG	pūnakauśim	khārakauśmin
2SG	pūnakauśið	khārakauśiðen
3SG	pūnakauśi	khārakauśian
1PL	pūnakaukṣi	khārakaukṣian
2PL	pūnakauseki	khārakauskän
3PL	pūnakauṣṭhe	khārakauṣṭhän

The hypothetical mood

The hypothetical mood is used mainly in if constructions (e.g. pūnatiam "if I work") and has special endings. Unlike the indicative, it only conjugates for aspect (imperfective vs. perfective) and not for tense. The perfective is regularly formed from the imperfective with -auś- between the stem and the ending.

Only the four basic conjugations are distinguished, each one keeping their thematic vowel in every imperfective form and lacking it in perfective forms. Fourth conjugation verbs whose root does not end in a vowel, or a single nasal, -r, or -l, add an epenthetic -a- in the imperfective; vowel-ending roots add -y- in the perfective.

The following table includes pūnake (exterior verb) and khārake (interior verb) in hypothetical mood, both aspects.

	pūnake (to work) (impf.)	(perf.)	khārake (new) (impf.)	(perf.)
1SG	pūnatiam	pūnauśtiam	khāratėmin	khārauśtėmin
2SG	pūnatuð	pūnauśtuð	khāratyðin	khārauśtyðin
3SG	pūnatar	pūnauśtar	khāratärin	khārauśtärin
1PL	pūnatasa	pūnauśtasa	khāratasen	khārauśtasen
2PL	pūnataka	pūnauśtaka	khārataken	khārauśtaken
3PL	pūnatatha	pūnauśtatha	khāratathen	khārauśtathen

The optative and propositive moods

The optative and propositive moods are formed by the same stem, just like the imperative and the indicative present. Like the hypothetical mood, the optative does only conjugate for aspect and not for tense.

The imperfective optative stem, also used for the propositive mood, is formed by adding -lęa- /ɴ̆eɦa/ to the stem, but it undergoes different kinds of saṃdhi:

• After any vowel, -ss, and the single consonants -p, -ph, -ch, -kh, -d, -j, -g, -dh, -gh, -ṣ, -ś, -v, -þ, -ð, -r, -l, or any nasal, the optative suffix is simply -lęa- (note that nasals become -ṃ before -l);
• -t, -th, -k, and -ʔ all become -kh before -lęa-;
• -ṭ, -ṭh, and -c become -ch;
• -ḍ, -ḍh, and -jh become -j;
• -s becomes -ś;
• -h becomes -g and -l- is not added;
• After -b and -bh, -r- is used instead of -l-.
• After any cluster, except -ss (and -lss and -ṃss), -l- is not added.

The perfective optative stem follows the same rules as the perfective hypothetical one, as it is formed by stem + -auś- + -lęa-.

The following table includes pūnake (exterior) and khārake (interior) in all aspects of the optative mood and in the propositive mood:

	pūnake (to work) (impf.)	(perf.)	(prop.)	khārake (new) (impf.)	(perf.)	(prop.)
1SG	pūṃlęami	pūnauślęami	pūṃlęāṣa	khārlęamen	khārauślęamen	khārlęālss
2SG	pūṃlęaði	pūnauślęaði	pūṃlęa	khārlęaðen	khārauślęaðen	khārlęambi
3SG	pūṃlęar	pūnauślęar	pūṃlęas	khārlęarin	khārauślęarin	khārlęat
1PL	pūṃlęaśim	pūnauślęaśim	pūṃlęaraṭhā	khārlęaśmin	khārauślęaśmin	khārlęarṭhi
2PL	pūṃlęakim	pūnauślęakim	pūṃlęayę	khārlęammin	khārauślęammin	khārlęayenį
3PL	pūṃlęathi	pūnauślęathi	pūṃlęaithi	khārlęathen	khārauślęathen	khārlęandį

The desiderative mood

The desiderative mood, unlike the optative and hypothetical ones, conjugates for all tenses and aspects, in the same way as the indicative. The main difference is that it uses a special stem, which is formed with reduplication of the root plus -s (except for -ėra- verbs). The resulting stem conjugates as any fourth conjugation verb.

Reduplication adds the first consonant of the verb (except prefixes) and its first vowel (always oral short). There are however some special rules followed in reduplicating:

• Aspirated stops are always reduplicated as unaspirated;
• g- is always reduplicated as h-, except for a few irregular verbs;
• h- is reduplicated as k- (also in hv-, hr-, hl-, hj-);
• k- as ś-;
• Initial clusters which begin with s-, ṣ-, ś-, or v- use the first consonant which is not one of them (śv- reduplicates as ś-);
• Roots beginning with vowels are regular, reduplicating the otherwise allophonic initial ʔ.
• Prefixes are added before the reduplicated root.

Final added -s has some special saṃdhi rules, too (in addition to the usual ones):

• -d-s and -dh-s both become -ts;
• After voiced stops, -s becomes -r and aspirated stops lose aspiration. -j-s and -jh-s both become -jl;
• -ś-s becomes -kṣ;
• -l-s becomes -lʲ when prevocalic and -lss when preconsonantal.

Examples of desiderative mood stems are:

• prādheke "to cut", root prādh- > pa-prādh-s > paprāts-
• lehake "to eat", root leh- > le-leh-s > lelęs-
• gṇyauke "to give birth/to be born", root gṇyāv- > ga-gṇyāv-s > hagṇyaus-
• ūtiraṃke "to write", root ūtiram- > u-ūtiram-s > uʔūtiraṃs-
• dīdaike "to know (someone)", root dīd- > di-dīd-s > didīts-
• paigdīdaike "to get used to", root paik-dīd- > paik-di-dīd-s > paigdidīts-

The main irregular desiderative stems are haiske "to be" > kęmbr-; milke "to take" > mumlėk-; and lilke "to live" > lailkṣ-.

-ėra- verbs do not reduplicate, but substitute -ėra- with -āyirṣa- instead (e.g. paijysėra- "to teach" > paijysāyirṣa- "to want to teach"). Note that for these verbs the synthetic desiderative is increasingly less common, being replaced by either infinitive + dauðike "to want" (Northern & Northwestern Laltīmāhia, Western and Central-Western Plains, Lāmiejāya delta area) or subjunctive + dauðike (most of the rest of Laltīmāhia). Note that in Northern Laltīmāhia the infinitive + dauðike construction is actually more common than the synthetic desiderative mood.

The necessitative mood

The necessitative mood is formed and conjugates much like the desiderative mood. Like it, its stem has initial reduplication and adds the -iṃśu- suffix, which conjugates as a fourth conjugation verb.

Reduplication is exactly like in the desiderative mood; the suffix undergoes the following saṃdhi rules:

• -a-i > -e- ; -ā-i > -ai
• -u-i, -ū-i, -y-i, -ȳ-i > -ui
• -e-i, -ė-i, -i-i, -ī-i > -ī
• -ä-i, -ø-i > -äy, -øy
• -o-i > -oʔi
• Final -s becomes -ś because of -i;
• Roots ending in breathy-voiced vowels add -h instead of -s and the vowel becomes oral.

Examples: prādheke > paprādhiṃśu-; paigdīdaike > paigdidīdiṃśu-; nake "to think" > naneṃśu-.

-ėra- verbs do not reduplicate, but -ėra- becomes -ėreṃśu- like for all other verbs.

The potential mood

The potential mood conjugates in all tenses and aspects too, but, unlike the necessitative and the desiderative ones, does not have initial reduplication. It is formed by adding -(e)nā- to the root and behaves as a fourth conjugation verb, adding an epenthetic -n before vocalic endings. Note that -r-nā- (like e.g. in all -ėra- verbs) becomes -rṇā- due to saṃdhi.

Examples: prādheke > prādhnā- ; gṇyauke > gṇyaunā- ; sėtrake "to ask" > sėtrenā-.

A special case of saṃdhi occurs in roots which end in a single -g or -k: this consonant becomes -gh and the -n in the suffix becomes retroflex, e.g. lälekke "to believe", root lälek- > läleghṇā- ; śńėgake "to say", root śńėg- > śńėghṇā-.

The permissive mood

The permissive mood also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and is formed by adding -eiðu- before consonantal endings and -eidv- before vocalic ones.

Examples: pūnake > pūneiðu- > present indicative pūneidvu "I am allowed to work", pūneidvið, pūneiður...

Bisyllabic roots which have as their second syllable an unstressed vowel between two consonants that may form an allowed cluster (thus sonorant-vowel-stop/fricative) lose this vowel while adding the suffix, e.g. lälekke > lälkeiðu-.

The subjunctive mood

The subjunctive (or oblique) mood conjugates in all tenses and aspects and is formed with initial reduplication (following the same rules of the necessitative and desiderative moods) and a suffix -āsmi- (-yāsmi- after vowels, but -ā-āsmi- and -a-āsmi- contract to just -āsmi-).

Examples: prādheke > paprādhāsmi- ; pūnake > pupūnāsmi- ; gṇyauke > gṇyāvāsmi-.

Just like the permissive mood, subjunctive stems have unstressed vowel syncope too, e.g. lälekke > lälälkāsmi-. -ėra- verbs do not have reduplication and just add -āsmi- (e.g. humbėrake > humbėrāsmi-).

Secondary moods: evidentiality

The five secondary moods expressing evidentiality are all formed by taking a particular mood's stem, adding -(h)į to it and then another ending which conjugates like an indicative mood verb. The only exception is the subjunctive mood, which adds these features to the root alone and then adds the -āsmi- suffix (without reduplication).

The five evidential secondary moods are:

• Certainty evidential: -(h)į + nėn(u)- ; e.g. pūnake "to work": indicative present pūnįnėnu, pūnįnėmvið, pūnįnėnur... past pūnįnėnum, pūnįnėnuð, pūnįnėnut..., imperfect pūnįnėnumisu..., optative present pūṃlęahįnėnu..., desiderative present pupūṃsįnėnu..., but subjunctive present pūnįnėnāsmiu;
• Deductive evidential: -(h)į + niau-/niāv- ; e.g. pūnake > pūnįniāvu / pūnįniaum / pūnįniaumisu / pupūṃsįniāvu / pūnįniāvāsmiu;
• Dream situation evidential: -(h)į + bu(v)- ; e.g. pūnake > pūnįbuvu / pūnįbum / pūnįbumisu / pupūṃsįbuvu / pūnįbuvāsmiu;
• Invented situation evidential: -(h)į + kȳ(n)-, which conjugates as a -st verb in the present ; e.g. pūnake > pūnįkȳściu / pūnįkȳm / pūnįkȳmisu / pupūṃsįkȳnu / pūnįkȳnāsmiu;
• Inferential evidential: -(h)į + läm(e)- ; e.g. pūnake > pūnįlämu / pūnįlämem / pūnįlämemisu / pupūṃsįlämu / pūnįlämāsmiu.

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Impersonal verbs

In Laceyiam there are five verbs that are impersonal — they are only conjugated in the third person singular interior and are only used in patient-trigger voice. They are:

• gaiśuke (to get/be bored)
• hältake (to be moved, touched)
• mavṣake (to feel compassion, pity)
• nāvtake (to repent, to feel remorse, to be sorry for)
• prābake (to be disgusted)

These verbs all have their cause in exessive case and the affected being in dative case, e.g. "I'm sorry for my mistake" is dønėrenėndra lulið nāvtąu, with dønėrenė (mistake) in exessive case and lāli (I) in the dative.

Irregular verbs

While Laceyiami verbs are mostly regular, there are thirteen irregular verbs which have different stems between the present and past, with the imperfect stem being one of them. Note that bulṭāṇama verbs are not considered irregular.

	Infinitive	Present stem	Past stem	Imperfect stem
hjøgeke (to need)	hjøg-e-	hjāji-	hjāji-
hvuipake (to point at)	hvuip-a-	taśiṃśȳv-a-	hvuip-a-
khabeke (to use)	khab-e-	tāvyv-e-	khab-e-
maldiake (to feel)	maldʲ-a-	tāṃlyd-e-	maldʲ-a-
milke (to take)	milėk-/milk-	milk-	milk-
peithake (to go (multidirectional))	peith-a-	thiātn-a-	peith-a-
śńėgake (to say)	śńėg-a-	śńėg-a-	tyh-a-
välieke (to answer)	välʲ-e-	tøylʲ-e-	välʲ-e-
vīṇyake (to tighten, to fasten)	vīṇʲ-a-	tøvṇʲ-a-	vīṇʲ-a-
yeihake (to read)	yeih-a-	tāśeh-a-*	yeih-a-
þørðe (to go (monodirectional))	þørð-	tvyāð-	þørð-

milke, in the present, uses milk- in the irregular first person milkū and milėk- anywhere else. The past of yeihake can nowadays also be formed irregularly, with e.g. yeihat (it was read) instead of tāśehar.

The past forms of hvuipake, khabeke, maldiake, peithake, välieke, vīṇyake, yeihake, and þørðe use the present endings and not the past ones — similarly, the imperfect of śńėgake uses the past endings instead of the imperfect ones.

The verb "to be" (haiske)

The verb "to be" in Laceyiam is haiske, and it is highly irregular because of ablaut and suppletion. Most of its forms derive from PCT *gə₂js- or some of its derivations, but the future tense is from *ba₁ɣməp- (to become). This table includes all of its indicative mood forms, plus the imperative: 

	Present	Past	Imperfect	Future	Pluperfect	Imperative
1SG	jū	høysu	haitsumisu	bąmby	jaliauśim	hiśvāṣa
2SG	jīð	hės	haitsumið	bąmmið	jaliauśið	hąi
3SG	jar	hėt	haitsumįt	bąmbir	jaliauśi	hās
1PL	jńām	jeiśi	haitsumīsė	bąmbiyām	jaliaukṣi	hiṣraṭhā
2PL	jńāð	jeiki	haitsumik	bąmbikām	jaliauseki	haisę
3PL	jhis	jeithe	haitsumīdė	bąmbithās	jaliauṣṭhe	haiṣṭhi

Note that the imperfect and pluperfect are actually regularly formed with the normal terminations and the stems haits- and jalʲ- respectively. In spoken Laceyiam, the past forms (høysu, hės...) are increasingly often used in place of the imperfect ones (haitsumisu, haitsumið...).

haiske is usually defined as an exterior-only verb, but actually there is a single interior 3rd person singular form which is used in the existential construction. This form always needs the pronoun tami and an accusative argument. The forms are tami jąu (present), tami hiṣąu (past), tami haitsumęn (imperfect), tami bąmbstąu (future), and tami jaliauśian (pluperfect). An example construction is tami ėmīlau jąu "there is a tiger", with ėmīla "tiger" in the accusative case. Note that neither the verb nor the pronoun vary for number, thus "there are tigers" is tami ėmīlarau jąu.

The verb tadhaiske (to treat someone, to behave with someone) is a compound of haiske, but it can be conjugated in two different ways:

• as a compound verb, with tad- plus all forms of haiske, thus indicative present tańjū, tańjīð, tańjar..., indicative past tadhøysu, tadhės, tadhėt... and so on.
• as a regular verb, with root tad-hais-, and thus with indicative present tadhaisu, tadhaiśvið, tadhaisur..., indicative past tadhaisum, tadhaisuð, tadhaisut.... Anyway, even in this case, in other voices the conjugation of haiske is the one commonly used, like agent-trigger voice, indicative present tajejū, tajejīð, tajejar... (morphemically tad-śe-jū...), benefactive-trigger tatkäjū, tatkäjīð, tatkäjar... (tad-käh-jū...) and so on.