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|created          = 1985
|created          = 1985
|familycolor      = Indo-European
|familycolor      = Indo-European
|fam2              = Lemizh
|fam2              = Lemizh branch
|ancestor          = Proto-Lemizh
|ancestor          = Proto-Lemizh
|posteriori        =
|posteriori        =
* [[w:Proto-Indo-European|PIE]]
* [[w:Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]]
* [[w:Occam's razor|Occam's razor]]
* [[w:Occam's razor|Occam's razor]]
|creator          = [[User:Anypodetos|Anypodetos]]
|creator          = [[User:Anypodetos|Anypodetos]]
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|nation            = Lemaria
|nation            = Lemaria
|map              = Map of Lemaria.png
|map              = Map of Lemaria.png
|mapalt            = The country of Lemaria lies to the north and west of the Black Sea. The capital, Shabar, is at the Dniester Liman or Estuary.
|mapalt            = The country of Lemaria lies to the north and west of the Black Sea. The capital, Shabar, is located at the Dniester Liman or Estuary.
|notice            = IPA
|notice            = IPA
}}
}}
'''Lemizh''' (<span style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[Help:IPA|[lεmˈiʒ]]]</span>, <small>native pronunciation:</small> <span style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[Help:IPA|[lɛmˈɯ̀ʒ]]]</span>) is a language I invented with the aim of creating a grammar as regular and simple as possible. It was originally intended as an [[w:International auxiliary language|international auxiliary language]]. However, it turned out that a simple grammar is not necessarily a grammar that is easy to learn: the more ways of simplification I found, the further away it moved from [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and probably all other familiar language structures. Expecting anyone to learn Lemizh, at this point, would be unrealistic.
'''Lemizh''' (<span style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[Help:IPA|[lεmˈiʒ]]]</span>, <small>native pronunciation:</small> <span style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[Help:IPA|[lɛmˈɯ̀ʒ]]]</span>) is a language I invented with the aim of creating a grammar as regular and simple as possible. It was originally intended as an [[w:International auxiliary language|international auxiliary language]]. However, it turned out that a simple grammar is not necessarily a grammar that is easy to learn: the more ways of simplification I found, the further away it moved from [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and probably all other familiar language structures. Expecting anyone to learn Lemizh, at this point, would be unrealistic.


So I needed a new justification for the language: enter the Lemizh, a people living to the west and north of the [[w:Black Sea|Black Sea]] in an alternate history that slowly drifted away from ours between two and eight millennia ago. Of course, it is extremely unlikely that they would speak a language that was completely without exceptions. To be precise, the chances are two to the power of two hundred and seventy-six thousand seven hundred and nine to one against. But they say that everything has to happen somewhere in the Multiverse; and everything happens only once.
So I needed a new justification for the language: enter the Lemizh, a people living to the west and north of the [[w:Black Sea|Black Sea]] in an alternate history that slowly drifted away from ours between two and eight millennia ago. Of course, it is extremely unlikely that they would speak a language that was completely without exceptions. To be precise, the chances for this to have happened are two to the power of two hundred and seventy-six thousand seven hundred and nine to one against. But they say that everything has to happen somewhere in the Multiverse; and everything happens only once.


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Lemizh is an Indo-European language and, together with Volgan, constitutes one of the ten recognised branches of the Indo-European language family. This branch is also called Lemizh, to the disgruntlement of Volgan linguists.
Lemizh is an Indo-European language and, together with Volgan, constitutes one of the ten recognised branches of the Indo-European language family. This branch is also called Lemizh, to the disgruntlement of Volgan linguists.


Proto-Lemizh, the ancestor of Lemizh and Volgan, is very poorly attested in form of some papyri found near the northwestern shore of the Black Sea, to the north of the [[w:Dniester Liman|Dniester Liman]], dated about 2700&nbsp;BC. Old Lemizh, by contrast, is fairly well attested. It had predominantly [[w:Subject–verb–object|subject–verb–object]] (SVO) word order and was a quite typical old Indo-European language, but with a couple of interesting quirks:
Proto-Lemizh, the ancestor of Lemizh and Volgan, is very poorly attested in form of some papyri found near the northwestern shore of the Black Sea, to the north of the [[w:Dniester Liman|Dniester Liman]], dated about 2700&nbsp;BCE. Old Lemizh, by contrast, is fairly well attested. It had predominantly [[w:Subject–verb–object|subject–verb–object]] (SVO) word order and was a quite typical old Indo-European language, but with a couple of interesting quirks:
* Adjectives were lost as a separate part of speech, being replaced with participles ("white" > "being white").
* Adjectives were lost as a separate part of speech, being replaced with participles ("white"&nbsp;> "being white").
* Finite subordinate clauses had their subject in the case of the clause: the subject of a local clause was in the locative case without having a local meaning in itself.
* Finite subordinate clauses had their subject in the case of the clause: the subject of a local clause was in the locative case without having a local meaning in itself.
The earliest known documents from this stage of Lemizh were probably written around 2100&nbsp;BC along the northern and western shores of the Back Sea.
The earliest known documents from this stage of Lemizh were probably written around 2100&nbsp;BCE along the northern and western shores of the Back Sea.


===Ghean and Middle Lemizh===
===Ghean and Middle Lemizh===
Ghean (<span style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[Help:IPA|[ˈɣɛən]]]</span>) is a language with no known genetic relationships. It was spoken by a people of unknown origin, who subdued the Lemizh tribes in around 1000&nbsp;BC and ruled for infamous three generations. Ghean was an inflected [[w:Tonal language|register tonal]] language with strict [[w:Verb–subject–object|verb–subject–object]] (VSO) word order and head-first phrases. It had verbs, [[w:Nominal (linguistics)|nominals]] (a combined noun/adjective/participle part of speech), pronouns and particles.
Ghean (<span style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[Help:IPA|[ˈɣɛən]]]</span>) is a language with no known genetic relationships. It was spoken by a people of unknown origin, who subdued the Lemizh tribes in around 1000&nbsp;BCE and ruled for infamous three generations. Ghean was an inflected [[w:Tonal language|register tonal]] language with strict [[w:Verb–subject–object|verb–subject–object]] (VSO) word order and head-first phrases. It had verbs, [[w:Nominal (linguistics)|nominals]] (a combined noun/adjective/participle part of speech), pronouns and particles.


The Gheans discouraged the use of the natives' language, but obviously tolerated Lemizh words (or rather word stems) to stand in for unfamiliar Ghean ones. The grammar of simple sentences was easy enough to learn for the Lemizh, as they were used to inflection and head-first phrases, and likely still knew VSO sentences from poetry. After two or three generations, the natives must have spoken a [[w:Creole language|creole]] with a more or less Ghean grammar but an abundance of Lemizh words, especially outside the core vocabulary. This is a rather unusual development as most creoles draw their lexicon mainly from the dominant group, and tend to be grammatically more innovative. (The Tanzanian language [[w:Mbugu language|Mbugu]] might have had a somewhat similar development with more or less analogous outcomes.) After the disappearance of the Gheans, Lemizh patriots tried to revive their old language, which failed spectacularly for the grammar but reintroduced many Lemizh words of the core vocabulary.
The Gheans discouraged the use of the natives' language, but obviously tolerated Lemizh words (or rather word stems) to stand in for unfamiliar Ghean ones. The grammar of simple sentences was easy enough to learn for the Lemizh, as they were used to inflection and head-first phrases, and likely still knew VSO sentences from poetry. After two or three generations, the natives must have spoken a [[w:Creole language|creole]] with a more or less Ghean grammar but an abundance of Lemizh words, especially outside the core vocabulary. This is a rather unusual development as most creoles draw their lexicon mainly from the dominant group, and tend to be grammatically more innovative. (The Tanzanian language [[w:Mbugu language|Mbugu]] might have had a somewhat similar development with more or less analogous outcomes.) After the disappearance of the Gheans, Lemizh patriots tried to revive their old language, which failed spectacularly for the grammar but reintroduced many Lemizh words of the core vocabulary.


===The last three millennia===
===The last three millennia===
While Middle Lemizh as spoken after the Ghean occupation already had a non-Indo-European and unusually regular grammar, this trend was to continue over the following millennia. The factive case was innovated to express verbal nouns, which eventually supplanted verbs altogether. (At least part of the blame goes to the Tlöngö̀l, an epic novel published in 1351, which popularised the use of verbal nouns.) The tonal system was simplified to the present two-way [[w:Pitch-accent language|pitch-accent]] system. Pronouns lost their status as a separate part of speech. The last particles died out a few hundred years ago, leaving the language with a single part of speech which is often called a "verb" but, historically speaking, is really a nominal. This means that the concept of ''parts of speech'' does not make sense in Modern Lemizh.
While Middle Lemizh as spoken after the Ghean occupation already had a non-Indo-European and unusually regular grammar, this trend was to continue over the following millennia. The factive case was innovated to express verbal nouns, which eventually supplanted verbs altogether. (At least part of the blame goes to the Tlöngö̀l, an epic novel published in 1351&nbsp;CE, which popularised the use of verbal nouns.) The tonal system was simplified to the present two-way [[w:Pitch-accent language|pitch-accent]] system. Pronouns lost their status as a separate part of speech. The last particles died out a few hundred years ago, leaving the language with a single part of speech which is often called a "verb" but, historically speaking, is really a nominal. This means that the concept of ''parts of speech'' does not make sense in Modern Lemizh.


This article describes the dialect spoken to the north of the [[w:Danube Delta|Danube delta]], which prevailed against other variants and is considered the standard language today.
This article describes the dialect spoken to the north of the [[w:Danube Delta|Danube Delta]], which prevailed against other variants and is considered the standard language today.


==Orthography and phonology==
==Orthography and phonology==
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|-
|-
! colspan="2" | plosives <small>(voiceless • voiced)</small>
! colspan="2" | plosives <small>(voiceless • voiced)</small>
| p <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> • b <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> || || t <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiceless alveolar plosive|t]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> • d <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiced alveolar plosive|d]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> || || k <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiceless velar plosive|k]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> • g <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiced velar plosive|g]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
| p <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> • b <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> || || t <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiceless alveolar plosive|t]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> • d <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiced alveolar plosive|d]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> || || k <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiceless velar plosive|k]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> • g <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[w:Voiced velar plosive|ɡ]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | fricatives <small>(voiceless • voiced)</small>
! colspan="2" | fricatives <small>(voiceless • voiced)</small>
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===Accent===
===Accent===
Lemizh has got a two-way pitch-accent system, in that accented moræ are not only spoken louder (as in English), but also have either a lower or a higher pitch than the surrounding unaccented ones. The accented mora is always the ultimate or penultimate of a word. The vowel at the centre of a low-pitch accented mora is transcribed with a grave accent, the vowel at the centre of a high-pitch accented mora with an acute accent.  
Lemizh has got a two-way pitch-accent system, in that accented moræ are not only spoken louder, but also have either a lower or a higher pitch than the surrounding unaccented ones. The accented mora is always the ultimate or penultimate of a word. The vowel at the centre of a low-pitch accented mora is transcribed with a grave accent, the vowel at the centre of a high-pitch accented mora with an acute accent.  
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; table-layout: fixed; text-align: center"
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; table-layout: fixed; text-align: center"
! colspan="8" | Accented vowel letters
! colspan="8" | Accented vowel letters
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[[w:Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] is rather permissive in Lemizh. A mora has the following structure, where the bracketed parts are optional:
[[w:Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] is rather permissive in Lemizh. A mora has the following structure, where the bracketed parts are optional:
* (O)(N)(L)V(L)(N)(O)
* (O)(N)(L)V(L)(N)(O)
V is the mora's vowel, L a liquid, N a nasal, and O an obstruent that can be either a P(losive), a F(ricative), FP, PF, FF, FFP, FPF, or PFF. Word-initial consonant clusters cannot contain more than three sounds. No geminate consonants (<abbr title="impossible">*</abbr>''ff'' etc.) occur within a mora. Consecutive plosive-fricative or fricative-plosive combinations within the same mora must have the same sonority – either both are voiced, or both are voiceless. A plosive cannot have the same place of articulation as a following consonant with the exception of ''rh'' and ''r''. <abbr title="impossible">*</abbr>''dzh'', <abbr title="impossible">*</abbr>''ddh'' and their voiceless counterparts are also prohibited within a mora.
V is the mora's vowel, L a liquid, N a nasal, and O an obstruent that can be either a P(losive), a F(ricative), FP, PF, FF, FFP, FPF, or PFF. Word-initial consonant clusters cannot contain more than three sounds. No geminate consonants (<abbr title="impossible">*</abbr>''ff'' etc.) occur within a mora. Consecutive plosive-fricative or fricative-plosive combinations within the same mora must have the same sonority – either both are voiced, or both are voiceless. A plosive cannot have the same place of articulation as a following consonant with the exception of ''rh'' and ''r''. <abbr title="impossible">*</abbr>''tsh'', <abbr title="impossible">*</abbr>''tth'' and their voiced counterparts are also prohibited within a mora.


Word boundaries, including those within compound words, are always mora boundaries. Where mora boundaries would still be ambiguous, liquids and nasals are assigned to the earliest possible mora (as the ''m'' in ''lem·ỳzh.''), and obstruents to the latest possible mora.
Word boundaries, including those within compound words, are always mora boundaries. Where mora boundaries would still be ambiguous, liquids and nasals are assigned to the earliest possible mora (as the ''m'' in ''lem·ỳzh.''), and obstruents to the latest possible mora.
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===Nouns===
===Nouns===
:''Nouns, adjectives and verbs do not correspond to any concepts in Lemizh grammar. Using these terms is just an attempt to describe the grammar from an Indo-European viewpoint.''
:''Nouns, adjectives and verbs do not correspond to any concepts in Lemizh grammar. Using these terms is just an attempt to describe the grammar from an Indo-European viewpoint.''
A large number of nouns are not derived from verbs in most languages: ''froth, ship, lion'' and many others. In Lemizh, however, we have verbs such as ''psràxk.'' "to froth", ''àksh.'' "to build a ship or ships", and ''làw.'' "to make a lion or lions". We will call these ''nominal verbs''.
A large number of nouns are not derived from verbs in most languages: ''froth, ship, lion'' and many others. In Lemizh, however, we have verbs such as ''psràxk.'' "to froth", ''àksh.'' "to build a ship or ships", and ''làw.'' "to make a lion or lions". We will call these ''nominal verbs'', keeping in mind that this is a semantic and not a grammatical category.


Looking at the verb ''àksh.'', the shipwright ({{sc|nom}}) gives the building materials ({{sc|dat}}) the properties or the function of a ship ({{sc|acc}}). He confers, well, shipness on the materials. The shipness is sent by the shipwright, not because he is acting, but because he is the source: the image of the ship, so to say, comes from his head and materialises in wood, iron, ropes, and linen. In short, these words mostly appear with inner accusative.
Looking at the verb ''àksh.'', the shipwright ({{sc|nom}}) gives the building materials ({{sc|dat}}) the properties or the function of a ship ({{sc|acc}}). He confers, well, shipness on the materials. The shipness is sent by the shipwright, not because he is acting, but because he is the source: the image of the ship, so to say, comes from his head and materialises in wood, iron, ropes, and linen. In short, these words mostly appear with inner accusative.
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| ''làw.'' "to make a lion" || [''lèw.'' "one making a lion"] || ''lỳw.'' "a thing having the properties of a lion = '''a lion'''" || [''lìw.'' "building materials for a lion, materials made into a lion"]
| ''làw.'' "to make a lion" || [''lèw.'' "one making a lion"] || ''lỳw.'' "a thing having the properties of a lion = '''a lion'''" || [''lìw.'' "building materials for a lion, materials made into a lion"]
|}
|}
Nouns expressing job titles and the like mostly have inner nominatives because professions are often about producing or selling something, or about providing a kind of service:
* ''ghexè.'' "baker" from ''ghexà.'' "to bake",
* ''saxèf.'' "trumpeter" from ''saxàf.'' "to play the trumpet",
* ''bèst.'' "hero" from ''bàst.'' "to do heroic deeds, to act as a hero".


Another very common kind of nouns are tool nouns, formed with an inner instrumental case:
Another very common kind of nouns are tool nouns, formed with an inner instrumental case:
* ''ghstù.'' "a sail" is derived from ''ghstà.'' "to sail", literally "a means of sailing",
* ''ghstù.'' "a sail" is derived from ''ghstà.'' "to sail", literally "a means of sailing",
* ''pslù.'' "scissors" from ''pslà.'' "to cut with scissors",
* ''pslù.'' "scissors" from ''pslà.'' "to cut with scissors",
* ''saxùf.'' "a trumpet" from ''saxàf.'' "to play the trumpet",
* ''saxùf.'' "a trumpet", also from ''saxàf.'',
* ''skrùzh.'' "a finger" from ''skràzh.'' "to work with one's fingers".
* ''skrùzh.'' "a finger" from ''skràzh.'' "to work with one's fingers".


====Inflection====
====Inflection====
As mentioned above, all words can inflect for (outer) case. Thus, we have the nominative forms ''wàx'''e''''' "(an action of) speaking, talking, telling", ''dè'''e''''' "a giver", ''lỳw'''e''''' "a lion", the causative ''lỳw'''el''''' "because of a lion", the elative ''lỳw'''er''''' "(starting) from a lion", etc.
As mentioned above, all words inflect for (outer) case. Thus, we have the nominative forms ''wàx'''e''''' "(an action of) speaking, talking, telling", ''dè'''e''''' "a giver", ''lỳw'''e''''' "a lion", the causative ''lỳw'''el''''' "because of a lion", the elative ''lỳw'''er''''' "(starting) from a lion", etc.


Lemizh words do not inflect for number or gender. If desired, we can express this information by forming compounds. (Note the duplication of the inner case vowel; the first occurrence in each word is called the epenthetic case of the compound. The underlying grammar will be described later.)
Lemizh words do not inflect for number or gender. If desired, we can express this information by forming compounds. (Note the duplication of the inner case vowel; the first occurrence in each word is called the epenthetic case of the compound. The underlying grammar is described [[#Compounds|further down]].)
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
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| ''ngà.'' "to make something nonexistent" || ''ngè.'' "one making something nonexistent" || ''ngỳ.'' "(something) '''nonexistent'''" || ''ngì.'' "something made nonexistent, something destroyed" || ''ngìl.'' "the consequence of making nonexistent = nothingness"
| ''ngà.'' "to make something nonexistent" || ''ngè.'' "one making something nonexistent" || ''ngỳ.'' "(something) '''nonexistent'''" || ''ngì.'' "something made nonexistent, something destroyed" || ''ngìl.'' "the consequence of making nonexistent = nothingness"
|-
|-
| ''dwà.'' "to make two things/individuals" || ''dwè.'' "one making two things" || ''dwỳ.'' "'''two''' (things)" || ''dwì.'' "something made into two (things)" || ''dwìl.'' "the consequence of making two things = twoness"
| ''dwà.'' "to make two individuals/things" || ''dwè.'' "one making two individuals" || ''dwỳ.'' "'''two''' (individuals)" || ''dwì.'' "something made into two (individuals)" || ''dwìl.'' "the consequence of making two individuals = twoness"
|}
|}


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! Inner factive !! Inner nominative !! Inner accusative !! Inner dative !! Inner causative
! Inner factive !! Inner nominative !! Inner accusative !! Inner dative !! Inner causative
|-
|-
| ''pthàb.'' "to be angry" || ''pthèb.'' "an angry one; '''angry'''" || ''pthỳb.'' "the content/object of one's anger" || ''pthìb.'' "one that one's anger reaches" || ''pthèlb.'' "one causing someone anger; one annoying someone"
| ''pthàb.'' "to be angry" || ''pthèb.'' "an angry one; '''angry'''" || ''pthỳb.'' "the content/object of one's anger; one ''about'' whom someone is angry" || ''pthìb.'' "one that one's anger reaches; one ''with'' whom someone is angry" || ''pthèlb.'' "one causing someone anger; one annoying someone"
|}
|}


====Inflection====
====Inflection====
Of course, adjectives can be compounded to express number and/or gender in the same way as nouns. Furthermore, we can form compounds expressing various degrees. (The epenthetic consecutive ''-il-'' in these compounds will also be explained later; it is actually the main application of the abstract nouns just mentioned.)
Evidently, adjectives can be compounded to express number and/or gender in the same way as nouns. Furthermore, we can form compounds expressing various degrees. (The epenthetic consecutive ''-il-'' in these compounds will also be explained later; it is actually the main application of the abstract nouns just mentioned.)
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! !! Neutral !! Diminutive !! Augmentative !! Absolute !! Comparative !! Superlative
! !! Neutral !! Diminutive !! Augmentative !! Absolute !! Comparative !! Superlative
|-
! white
| ''lỳbdh.'' || ''lilbdh'''zhrỳ'''.'' "whitish" || ''lilbdh'''dmỳ'''.'' "very white" || ''lilbdh'''ghngỳ'''.'' "purely white" || ''lilbdh'''tỳzhd'''.'' "whiter" || ''lilbdh'''ỳst'''.'' "whitest"
|-
|-
! warm
! warm
| ''gmrỳ.'' || ''gmril'''zhrỳ'''.'' "lukewarm" || ''gmril'''dmỳ'''.'' "hot" || ''gmril'''ghngỳ'''.'' "absolutely hot" || ''gmril'''tỳzhd'''.'' "warmer, hotter" || ''gmril'''ỳst'''.'' "hottest"
| ''gmrỳ.'' || ''gmril'''zhrỳ'''.'' "cold" || ''gmril'''dmỳ'''.'' "hot" || ''gmril'''ghngỳ'''.'' "absolutely hot" || ''gmril'''tỳzhd'''.'' "warmer, hotter" || ''gmril'''ỳst'''.'' "hottest"
|-
! white
| ''lỳbdh.'' || ''lilbdh'''zhrỳ'''.'' "whitish" || ''lilbdh'''dmỳ'''.'' "very white" || ''lilbdh'''ghngỳ'''.'' "absolutely/completely white" || ''lilbdh'''tỳzhd'''.'' "whiter" || ''lilbdh'''ỳst'''.'' "whitest"
|-
|-
! compound with
! compound with
| — || ''zhrỳ.'' "few, little, a bit" || ''dmỳ.'' "much, many" || ''ghngỳ.'' "every, all, the whole" || ''tỳzhd.'' "more" || ''ỳst.'' "most"
| — || ''zhrỳ.'' "few, little, a bit" || ''dmỳ.'' "much, many" || ''ghngỳ.'' "every, all, the whole" || ''tỳzhd.'' "more" || ''ỳst.'' "most"
|}
|}
Further examples are ''gmril'''bdhỳ'''.'' "lukewarm" and ''lilbdh'''ngỳ'''.'' "black", the latter being a compound with the negator ''ngỳ''.


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
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====Inflection====
====Inflection====
* Person is not expressed with inflection but with [[#Relative pronouns|pronouns]].
* Person is not expressed with inflection but with [[#Relative pronouns|pronouns]].
* Number is conveyed by compounding pronouns with numerals. While verbs (i.e. words with an inner factive) can be compounded with numerals, ''ftrask'''mlà'''.'' does not mean "we/they sneeze" but "(there are) several acts of sneezing" (i.e. someone sneezes several times and/or several people sneeze).
* Number agreement does not exist in Lemizh. While verbs (i.e. words with an inner factive) can be compounded with numerals, ''ftrask'''mlà'''.'' does not mean "we/they sneeze" but "(there are) several acts of sneezing" (i.e. someone sneezes several times and/or several people sneeze).
* Voice (active/passive) is absent in Lemizh; word order serves a similar function.
* Voice (active/passive) is absent; word order serves a similar function.
* Tense is expressed by compounds with an epenthetic temporal case (''-arh-''), or with certain inner cases. The latter option is preferred if possible, as it is more concise.
* Tense is expressed by compounds with an epenthetic temporal case (''-arh-''), or with certain inner cases. The latter option is preferred if possible, as it is more concise.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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| — || pronoun || ''prilkỳ.'' "back" || — || ''prỳ.'' "front" || —  
| — || pronoun || ''prilkỳ.'' "back" || — || ''prỳ.'' "front" || —  
|}
|}
Note that the translation of the perfect with inner consecutive coincides with the translation of stative verbs: "having sat down" in the strict perfect sense of "the consequence/effect of this action exists" means the same as "to sit". Likewise, "whiteness" can be expressed as the abstract concept of "having whitened something".
Note that the translation of the [[w:Perfect (grammar)|perfect]] with inner consecutive coincides with the translation of stative verbs: "having sat down" in the strict perfect sense of "the consequence/effect of this action exists" means the same as "to sit". Likewise, "whiteness" can be expressed as the abstract concept of "having whitened something".


* Mood corresponds to compounds with certain verbs for the most part. There is no equivalent to the subjunctive mood, as subordinate clauses are irreal (i.e. not necessarily real) by default. Here are some common formations:
* Mood corresponds to compounds with certain verbs. There is no equivalent to the subjunctive mood, as subordinate clauses are irreal (i.e. not necessarily real) by default per Rule Seven of sentence grammar (on which more [[#Seven|below]]). Here are some common formations:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! !! Indicative !! Imperative !! Commanding imperative !! Interrogative<br>Polite imperative !! Optative
! !! Indicative !! Imperative !! Commanding imperative !! Interrogative<br>Polite imperative !! Optative !! Negative
|-
|-
! to feed, to eat
! to feed, to eat
| ''àdh.'' || ''adh'''pràk'''.'' || ''adh'''dàxt'''.'' || ''adh'''pà'''.'' || ''adh'''làxt'''.''
| ''àdh.'' || ''adh'''pràk'''.'' || ''adh'''dàxt'''.'' || ''adh'''pà'''.'' || ''adh'''làxt'''.'' || ''adh'''ngà'''.'' "don't eat"
|-
|-
! compound with
! compound with
| — || ''pràk.'' "to request" || ''dàxt.'' "to command" || ''pà.'' "to ask" || ''làxt.'' "to want"
| — || ''pràk.'' "to request" || ''dàxt.'' "to command" || ''pà.'' "to ask" || ''làxt.'' "to want" || ''ngà.'' "to make nonexistent"
|}
|}
* Aspect is a very diverse category, expressed by a variety of compounds and syntactic structures in Lemizh.
* Aspect is a diverse category, expressed by a variety of compounds and syntactic structures.


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
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The first word in a sentence (the main predicate) is of first level by definition. The level of the next word is determined by the main predicate's accent and by the type of pause between the two words, the level of the third word is determined by the accent of the second and the pause between these two, and so on.
The first word in a sentence (the main predicate) is of first level by definition. The level of the next word is determined by the main predicate's accent and by the type of pause between the two words, the level of the third word is determined by the accent of the second and the pause between these two, and so on.


Here is the complete list of pause/accent combinations.
Here is the complete list of pause/accent combinations:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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In the diagram, the main predicate's three objects are enclosed in ellipses. Objects of the same word are called ''sibling objects'' or just ''siblings'', and the word they are subordinate to is their ''predicate''. Note that ''predicate'' and ''object'' are relative terms like ''parent'' and ''child''.
In the diagram, the main predicate's three objects are enclosed in ellipses. Objects of the same word are called ''sibling objects'' or just ''siblings'', and the word they are subordinate to is their ''predicate''. Note that ''predicate'' and ''object'' are relative terms like ''parent'' and ''child''.


The table of level markers implies that only the first object of a predicate can be marked as agent. (This has been interpreted as Lemizh having VSO word order, although a subject is not quite the same as an agent, and Lemizh grammar strictly speaking does not have the concept of a subject.)
The table of level markers implies that only the first object of a predicate can be marked as agent. So Lemizh can be said to have VSO word order, or more correctly VAO (verb–agent–object).


'''Rule Three. The outer case of the first word of an object defines its relation to its predicate's stem via its descriptor; the outer case of a level 1 word is zero.'''
'''Rule Three. The outer case of the first word of an object defines its relation to its predicate's stem via its descriptor; the outer case of a level 1 word is zero.'''
Line 367: Line 373:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
|dá föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
|dá föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
|give-FACT-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2A bottle-ACC-ACC-2 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2.
|give-FACT-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-'''NOM'''-2A bottle-ACC-'''ACC'''-2 Lucy-ACC-'''DAT'''-2.
|''Father Christmas gives Lucy a bottle.''}}
|''Father Christmas gives Lucy a bottle.''}}


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{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
|dá lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe.
|dá lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe.
|give-FACT-1 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2A bottle-ACC-ACC-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2.
|give-FACT-1 Lucy-ACC-'''DAT'''-2A bottle-ACC-'''ACC'''-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-'''NOM'''-2.
|''Lucy takes a bottle from Father Christmas.''}}
|''Lucy takes a bottle from Father Christmas.''}}


We need not mark an object as agentive if we consider this information unimportant. The English translations are only rough approximations:
We need not mark an object as agentive if we do not consider this information important. The English translations are only rough approximations:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
|dà lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe.
|dà lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe.
Line 388: Line 394:
|''[Someone] helps the speaker. ⇔ The one being helped speaks.''}}
|''[Someone] helps the speaker. ⇔ The one being helped speaks.''}}


Both sentences claim that the sender of speaking is the recipient of helping. The equation is ''wèx.'' = ''lìzhw.'', the speaker = the one being helped.
Both sentences assert that the sender of speaking is the recipient of helping. The equation is ''wèx.'' = ''lìzhw.'', the speaker = the one being helped.


'''Rule Four. An instance of a word stem designates a specific action.'''
'''Rule Four. An instance of a word stem designates a specific action.'''
Line 398: Line 404:
'''Rule Five. A case characterises the action it refers to completely with regard to its case descriptor.'''
'''Rule Five. A case characterises the action it refers to completely with regard to its case descriptor.'''


For example, the nominative object "Father Christmas" has to name the complete sender of the above instance of giving. This excludes from this instance all giving not done by Father Christmas. So each object places a restriction on the action of giving the main predicate refers to. Thus, the subset of giving meant by this instance of ''dà.'' – what the sentence is ultimately talking about – is defined more and more precisely with each additional object. (This is true not only of the main predicate but of all words in a sentence.)
For example, the nominative object "Father Christmas" has to name the complete sender of the above instance of giving. This excludes from this instance all giving not done by Father Christmas. So each object places a restriction on the action of giving the main predicate refers to. Thus, the subset of giving meant by this instance of ''dà.'' – what the sentence is ultimately talking about – is defined more and more precisely with each additional object. (This is true not only of the main predicate but of all words in a sentence. Also, as inner and outer cases can be interconverted via inversion, this rule applies to inner cases as well.)


'''Rule Six. A missing object is equivalent to the absence of information about its descriptor.'''
'''Rule Six. A missing object is equivalent to the absence of information about its descriptor.'''
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Above sentences do not have, for example, locative objects, so Rule Five cannot place a restriction on the place of giving. Because of Rule Six, this does not mean there are no restrictions on the location, but only that this kind of information has not been included in the sentence (for example, because the speaker does not know about it, considers it irrelevant, assumes that the listener already knows or – perhaps most importantly – that the listener can infer it). In fact, everything not useful for understanding a sentence should be omitted to save the listener processing effort. (See the inversion example above, which omits the nominative "someone".)
Above sentences do not have, for example, locative objects, so Rule Five cannot place a restriction on the place of giving. Because of Rule Six, this does not mean there are no restrictions on the location, but only that this kind of information has not been included in the sentence (for example, because the speaker does not know about it, considers it irrelevant, assumes that the listener already knows or – perhaps most importantly – that the listener can infer it). In fact, everything not useful for understanding a sentence should be omitted to save the listener processing effort. (See the inversion example above, which omits the nominative "someone".)


Rules Five and Six imply that every instance of a word has exactly one action (which, however, need not be contiguous), one sender (which can consist of several people), and so on: Five excludes additional senders if one nominative object is already present, and Six gives meaning to missing objects, establishing them as an integral part of Lemizh sentence grammar.
Rules Five and Six imply that every instance of a word has exactly one action (which, however, need not be contiguous), one sender (which may consist of several people), and so on: Five excludes additional senders if one nominative object is already present, and Six gives meaning to missing objects, establishing them as an integral part of Lemizh sentence grammar.


'''Rule Seven. Given an object and its predicate, the predicate is considered more real and the object more hypothetical.'''
{{anchor|Seven}}'''Rule Seven. Given an object and its predicate, the predicate is considered more real and the object more hypothetical.'''
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive; 3:third level
|láxt föpysryfè dày dwywỳ lusỳi.
|want-FACT-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2A give-FACT-ACC-2 bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.
|''Father Christmas wants to give Lucy a bottle.'' (The action of giving is the content of the wish. The nominative object of "give", which is also Father Christmas, is omitted per Rule Six.)}}
 
This sentence contains the information that Father Christmas wants something (i.e. to give Lucy a bottle), but not that he actually gives something (i.e. Lucy a bottle). The main predicate "want", so to speak, lives in the world the sentence is talking about (more formally, the world of the parole), which is the more real, while its object "give Lucy a bottle" lives in the world of his wish, which is the more hypothetical. The parole, having level zero, acts as the predicate to the sentence as a whole and is therefore still more real. This reflects the fact that the parole is part of the real world; it is as real as anything linguistic can be. Turning this around, we see that the sentence is more hypothetical than reality: it can be a metaphor or some other figure of speech, a statement about a fictional or otherwise imagined world, an error, a lie, a linguistic example sentence, etc. We call the main predicate's kind of reality, the one that is just one level more hypothetical than the parole and the real world, ''grammatical reality''.


…
The bottle and Lucy, having third level, are still more hypothetical than the action of giving; their existence does not follow from grammar but from logic and context: someone nonexistent cannot be given something. A better example would be "I see white mice", where the existence of the mice may or may not be inferred from context such as the amount of alcohol I have drunk.
<!--
 
* Rule Five applied to inner case: THIS instance of giving exists
In the sentence "I think that Father Christmas wants to give Lucy a bottle", "to think" is grammatically real, while the other two verbs, so to say, are pushed down one degree of reality.
* want to X ⇔ to X gladly: see below, to sing loudly, and "Father Christmas wants ..."
 
-->
Inversion changes degrees of reality; only the second of the following sentences contains the information that he actually gives something:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|làxt dày. ⇔ dà lỳxta.
|want-FACT-1 give-'''FACT'''-'''ACC'''-2. ⇔ give-FACT-1 want-'''ACC'''-'''FACT'''-2.
|''[He] wants to give. ⇔ [He] gives "wantingly", i.e. gladly.''}}
 
There is no real difference between phrases and complete sentences in Lemizh:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! !! as an object !! as a complete sentence
! !! as an object (hypothetical) !! as a main predicate / complete sentence (grammatically real)
|-
|-
| ''dà.'' || to give; giving || An action of giving exists = Someone gives something.
| ''dà.'' || to give; giving || An action of giving exists = Someone gives something.
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===Noun phrases===
===Noun phrases===
Forming noun phrases does not require any new grammatical rules. In the following example, the inner case of "give" is changed to the nominative, yielding "one giving something, a giver", and everything is pushed down one level. The third-level words are still sender, content and recipient of the ''action'' of giving, as outer cases define relations to the predicate's ''stem'' per Rule Three.
Forming noun phrases does not require any new grammatical rules. Changing the inner case of "give" in the first example sentence above to the nominative yields "one giving something, a giver". The objects are still sender, content and recipient of the ''action'' of giving, as outer cases define relations to the predicate's ''stem'' per Rule Three:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level; 3A:third level, agentive
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
|dmàt tryxkì dée föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
|dé föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
|see-FACT-1 beaver-ACC-DAT-2 give-'''NOM'''-NOM-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-3A bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.
|give-'''NOM'''-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2A bottle-ACC-ACC-2 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2.
|''The beaver sees '''the one giving Lucy a bottle, Father Christmas'''.''}}
|''[There is] one giving Lucy a bottle, Father Christmas.''}}
Regarding the verb "see", note that the beaver is in the dative, being at the receiving end of the optical stimulus or information. Marking the beaver as agent would translate as "The beaver looks at the one&nbsp;…".
 
Rules Four and Five guarantee that the giver is identical to Father Christmas: both are the sender of the same instance of the stem ''d–'' "give" (the giver via its inner nominative, Father Christmas via its outer nominative), and both are the ''complete'' sender of this action. This type of construction, where an object's outer case matches its predicate's inner case, is called a '''bracket'''. The identity of predicate and object means that the object is as real as its predicate in the sense of Rule Seven. We say that a bracket confers reality on its object.


Rules Four and Five guarantee that the giver is identical to Father Christmas: both are the sender of the same instance of the stem ''d–'' "give" (the giver via its inner nominative, Father Christmas via its outer nominative), and both are the ''complete'' sender of this action. This type of construction, where an object's outer case matches its predicate's inner case, is called a '''bracket'''. Brackets are very widely used:
Brackets are used extensively:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
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|''a bird singing to a sad child at night''}}
|''a bird singing to a sad child at night''}}


Adverbially used adjectives are phrased with factive brackets. However, changing the predicate's inner case leaves the object's outer factive intact, losing the bracket.
Adverbially used adjectives are phrased with factive brackets:
{|
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|-
| {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|gangà txỳska.
|gangà txỳska.
|sing-'''FACT'''-1 loud-ACC-'''FACT'''-2.
|sing-'''FACT'''-1 loud-ACC-'''FACT'''-2.
|''(an action of) singing, a loud thing &#61; loud singing &#61; singing loudly, to sing loudly''}}
|''(an action of) singing, a loud thing &#61; loud singing &#61; singing loudly, to sing loudly'' (Compare "to give gladly" above, under Rule Seven.)}}


| {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
However, changing the predicate's inner case leaves the object's outer factive intact, losing the bracket:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
|gangè txỳska.
|gangè txỳska.
|sing-'''NOM'''-1 loud-ACC-FACT-2.
|sing-'''NOM'''-1 loud-ACC-FACT-2.
|''a loud singer &#61; someone singing loudly'' (The action of singing is a loud thing.)}}
|''a loud singer &#61; someone singing loudly'' (The action of singing is a loud thing.)}}
|}


As [[w:Genitive construction|genitive constructions]] have a wide variety of meanings, there is no single Lemizh equivalent. The typical translation for constructions indicating possession is with the benefactive case, but other cases frequently occur. Everything depends on the object's relation to the predicate's stem per Rule Three.
As '''[[w:Genitive construction|genitive constructions]]''' have a wide variety of meanings, there is no single Lemizh equivalent. The typical translation for constructions indicating possession is with the benefactive case, but other cases frequently occur. Everything depends on the object's relation to the predicate's stem per Rule Three:
{|
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=1:first level; 2:second level
|-
| {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=1:first level; 2:second level
|dwỳw lusỳü.
|dwỳw lusỳü.
|bottle-ACC-1 Lucy-ACC-'''BEN'''-2.
|bottle-ACC-1 Lucy-ACC-'''BEN'''-2.
|Lucy is the beneficiary of making the bottle.<br>The bottle is made for Lucy.<br>
|''Lucy's bottle'' (Lucy is the beneficiary of making the bottle.)}}
''Lucy's bottle''}}


| {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
|dý ỳxe.
|dý ỳxe.
|give-ACC-1 male-ACC-'''NOM'''-2A.
|give-ACC-1 male-ACC-'''NOM'''-2A.
|The man is the sender of giving.<br>
|''the man's gift'' (The man is the sender of giving.)}}
''the man's gift''}}


| {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
|rhỳst ytfỳarh filpskỳy.
|rhỳst ytfỳarh filpskỳy.
|dream-ACC-1 night-ACC-'''TEMP'''-2 midsummer-ACC-ACC-3.
|dream-ACC-1 night-ACC-'''TEMP'''-2 midsummer-ACC-ACC-3.
| The midsummer night is the time of dreaming.<br>
|''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' (The midsummer night is the time of dreaming.)}}
''A Midsummer Night's Dream''}}
 
|}
Phrases with the conjunction '''"and"''' translate to several objects in the same outer case with inner partitives. Thanks to Rule Five, the recipient of "to give" in this sentence literally is "the set from which Peter is thought to be taken, which is equal to the set from which Susan is thought to be taken, which is equal to the set from which Lucy is thought to be taken":
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=PARTACC:partitive accusative case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
|dá föpysryfè petyngsì susngyngì lusỳngi.
|give-FACT-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2A Peter-PARTACC-DAT-2 Susan-PARTACC-DAT-2 Lucy-PARTACC-DAT-2.
|''Father Christmas gives [something] to Peter, Susan and Lucy.''}}


===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
Non-finite and conjunctional clauses employ the same principles as above:
We have already discussed the infinitive clause in "Father Christmas wants '''to give Lucy a bottle'''" under Rule Seven.
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive; 3:third level
|láxt föpysryfè dày dwywỳ lusỳi.
|want-FACT-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2A give-'''FACT'''-ACC-2 bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.
|''Father Christmas wants '''to give Lucy a bottle'''.'' ("Father Christmas" is omitted from the dependent clause per Rule Six.)}}


The difference between English gerund clauses and finite that-clauses roughly translates into a difference between an inner factive (''action'') and an inner affirmative (''fact'').
The difference between English gerund clauses and that-clauses roughly translates into a difference between an inner factive (''action'') and an inner affirmative (''fact''):
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level; 3A:third level, agentive
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level; 3A:third level, agentive
|dmàt tryxkì dáe föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
|dmàt tryxkì dáe föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
|see-FACT-1 beaver-ACC-DAT-2 give-'''FACT'''-NOM-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-3A bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.
|see-FACT-1 beaver-ACC-DAT-2 give-'''FACT'''-NOM-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-3A bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.
|''The beaver sees [the action of] '''Father Christmas giving Lucy a bottle'''.'' (The dependent clause could also be in the accusative to focus on the optical information transmitted to the beaver.)}}
|''The beaver sees [the action of] Father Christmas giving Lucy a bottle.'' (The beaver is at the receiving end of the optical stimulus or information, hence the dative. The dependent clause could also be in the accusative to focus on the optical information transmitted to the beaver.)}}


{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; AFF:affirmative case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level; 3A:third level, agentive
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; AFF:affirmative case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level; 3A:third level, agentive
|dmàt tryxkì dále föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
|dmàt tryxkì dále föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
|see-FACT-1 beaver-ACC-DAT-2 give-'''AFF'''-NOM-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-3A bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.
|see-FACT-1 beaver-ACC-DAT-2 give-'''AFF'''-NOM-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-3A bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.
|''The beaver sees [the fact of] '''Father Christmas giving Lucy a bottle'''. The beaver sees '''that''' Father Christmas gives Lucy a bottle.''}}
|''The beaver sees [the fact of] Father Christmas giving Lucy a bottle. The beaver sees '''that''' Father Christmas gives Lucy a bottle.''}}


Some examples of dependent clauses translating into objects in various cases:
Some examples of dependent clauses translating into objects in various cases:
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|''[He] stood up because [he] wanted to see Father Christmas.''}}
|''[He] stood up because [he] wanted to see Father Christmas.''}}


Relative clauses are structurally identical to (extended) attributive participles as described above; they are brackets: ''a bird which sings to a sad child at night = a bird singing to a sad child at night''. This is also true of clauses with relative adverbs:
'''[[w:Relative clause|Relative clauses]]''' are structurally identical to attributive participles as described above; they are brackets: ''a bird which sings to a sad child at night = a bird singing to a sad child at night''. This is also true of clauses with relative adverbs:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=1:first level; 2:second level; 3A:third level, agentive
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=1:first level; 2:second level; 3A:third level, agentive
|ngỳw gangáry lỳbe.
|ngỳw gangáry lỳbe.
Line 558: Line 571:


===Predicative===
===Predicative===
…
[[w:Predicative expression|Predicatives]], like all sentences, follow the plot arrow:
<!--The nominal verb ''mà.'' "to make [something, an entity]"-->
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
|ghát zhngyè bestỳ lusỳi.
|name-FACT-1 child-ACC-'''NOM'''-2A hero-NOM-'''ACC'''-2 Lucy-ACC-'''DAT'''-2.
|''The children called Lucy a hero.'' (The children gave the designation of hero to Lucy.)}}
 
Predicatives with the verb "to make" typically correspond to Lemizh sentences with a nominal or adjectival verb as the main predicate. This can be interpreted as the accusative object – here "ill" – being absorbed ("swallowed") by the main predicate:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|mà ydhè gwilbkyỳ wỳgwi. → gwilbkà ydhè wỳgwi.
|make-FACT-1 eat-ACC-'''NOM'''-2 ill-ACC-'''ACC'''-2 dog-ACC-'''DAT'''-2. → ill-FACT-1 eat-ACC-NOM-2 dog-ACC-DAT-2.
|''The food made the dog ill.'' (The food gave the property of being ill to the dog. – The food could also be seen as the cause for making the dog ill, calling for the causative case.)}}
 
The verb "to be" translates as the corresponding perfect form, i.e. with inner consecutive of the main predicate:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|lìlbdh lỳghi.
|lìlbdh lỳghi.
|white-CONS-1 house-ACC-DAT-2.
|white-'''CONS'''-1 house-ACC-DAT-2.
|The consequence of whitening the house exists. The house has been made white.<br>
|''The house is [painted] white.'' (The house has been given the property of being white. The house has been whitened.)}}
''The house is white.''}}
 
The above are called resultative predicatives, describing the result of some property being conferred on someone or something. A depictive predicative describes an inherent property; this is achieved with an accusative object:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|drulìl werhèy.
|shrub-CONS-1 hazel-NOM-'''ACC'''-2.
|''The hazel is a shrub.'' (The hazel has the properties of a shrub.)}}
(Side note: The stem of ''werhè.'' "hazel" means "to make hazelnuts", hence the inner nominative. The nuts are called ''werhỳ.'', with inner accusative. Other plants bearing edible fruits follow the same pattern.)


===Relative pronouns===
===Relative pronouns===
Stems of relative pronouns (not to be confused with the pronouns of the same name in English or Latin) refer to actions by pointing to another stem or to a parole: they are [[w:Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphoric]]. Here is the full list:
Stems of relative pronouns (not to be confused with the pronouns of the same name in other languages) refer to actions by pointing to another stem or to a parole: they are [[w:Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphoric]]. Here is the full list:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Level !! colspan="2" | Type I !! colspan="2" | Type II
! rowspan="2" | Level !! colspan="2" | Type I !! colspan="2" | Type II
Line 585: Line 615:
| n−5 || ghà. || … || xà. || …
| n−5 || ghà. || … || xà. || …
|}
|}
They are highly versatile, corresponding to various structures in other languages. Recall that a sentence's parole has level zero:
Relative pronouns are highly versatile. Recall that a sentence's parole has level zero:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Reflexive !! First person (singular) !! Second person
! Reflexive !! First person (singular) !! Second person
Line 592: Line 622:
|wáx wìe.
|wáx wìe.
|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−1</sub>-'''DAT'''-'''NOM'''-2A.
|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−1</sub>-'''DAT'''-'''NOM'''-2A.
|The recipient of speaking is its sender.<br>
|''to talk to oneself. [He] is talking to himself.'' (The recipient of speaking is its sender.)}}
''to talk to oneself. He is talking to himself.''}}


| {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
| {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
|dráw dhèe.
|dráw dhèe.
|dance-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-'''NOM'''-NOM-2A.
|dance-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-'''NOM'''-NOM-2A.
|The sender of the parole is the sender of dancing.<br>
|''I am dancing.'' (The sender of the parole is the sender of dancing.)}}
''I am dancing.''}}


| {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
| {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
|dráw dhìe.
|dráw dhìe.
|dance-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-'''DAT'''-NOM-2A.
|dance-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-'''DAT'''-NOM-2A.
|The recipient of the parole is the sender of dancing.<br>
|''You are dancing.'' (The recipient of the parole is the sender of dancing.)}}
''You are dancing.''}}
|}
|}
Rule Four of sentence grammar ensures that the reflexive example means "He is talking to himself" as opposed to, say, "He is talking to one being talked to" (which would be ''wáx wìxe.'' <span style="font-variant-numeric: oldstyle-nums">speak-{{sc|fact}}-1 speak-{{sc|dat-nom}}-2{{sc|a}}</span>, with two different instances of the stem "speak").
Rule Four of sentence grammar ensures that the reflexive example means "He is talking to himself" as opposed to, say, "He is talking to one being talked to" (which would be ''wáx wìxe.'' <span style="font-variant-numeric: oldstyle-nums">speak-{{sc|fact}}-1 speak-{{sc|dat-nom}}-2{{sc|a}}</span>, with two different instances of the stem "speak").


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Possessive determiner !! Vocative
! Possessive (≙ genitive) determiner !! Vocative
|-
|-
| {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
| {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
|zdìls ngỳzdy zeú tỳar.
|zdìls ngỳzdy zeú tỳar.
|seat-CONS-1 bird-ACC-ACC-2 PI<sub>n−3</sub>-'''NOM'''-BEN-3 this-ACC-LOC-2.
|seat-CONS-1 bird-ACC-ACC-2 PI<sub>n−3</sub>-'''NOM'''-BEN-3 this-ACC-LOC-2.
|The sender of the parole is the beneficiary of making a bird.
|''My bird is sitting there.'' (The sender of the parole is the beneficiary of making a bird.)}}
<br>''My bird is sitting there.''}}


| {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=PI:pronoun type I; FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive; 3:third level
| {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=PI:pronoun type I; FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive; 3:third level
|wáx dheè zdhèzhi zìe.
|wáx dheè zdhèzhi zìe.
|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-NOM-NOM-2A friend-NOM-DAT-2 PI<sub>n−3</sub>-'''DAT'''-NOM-3.
|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-NOM-NOM-2A friend-NOM-DAT-2 PI<sub>n−3</sub>-'''DAT'''-NOM-3.
|The recipient of the parole is the friend. (nominative bracket)<br>
|''Friend, I am talking to you.'' (The recipient of the parole is the friend: nominative bracket.)}}
''Friend, I am talking to you.''}}
|}
|}


Line 651: Line 676:
|làxt àdhy. ⇒ adhlàxt.
|làxt àdhy. ⇒ adhlàxt.
|want-FACT-1 eat-FACT-ACC-2. ⇒ eat-FACT-want-FACT-1.
|want-FACT-1 eat-FACT-ACC-2. ⇒ eat-FACT-want-FACT-1.
|''[She] wants to eat.'' (See the inflection of [[#Verbs|verbs]].)}}
|''[She] wants to eat.'' (See the inflection of [[#Verbs|verbs]]; the other moods follow the same pattern.)}}
Here, the lost accusative ending has to be deduced from context.
Here the accusative ending is lost and has to be deduced from context.


'''Rule Two. In the relationship between the original predicate and object, the rules of sentence grammar are retained as far as applicable.'''
'''Rule Two. In the relationship between the original predicate and object, the rules of sentence grammar are retained as far as applicable.'''


The consequences of this rule are somewhat technical; but the last one, pertaining to degree of reality, is important for correctly interpreting compounds.
The consequences of this rule are somewhat technical; but the last one, pertaining to degree of reality, is important for correctly interpreting compounds.
* Rules One to Three of sentence grammar are not applicable to compounds, as can be easily seen.
* Rules One to Three of sentence grammar are not applicable to compounds, as can easily be seen.
* Four: Both modifier and head are instantiations of specific actions in the original sentence (which however do not necessarily match the instantiation of the compound).
* Four: Both modifier and head are instantiations of specific actions in the original sentence (which however do not necessarily match the instantiation of the compound).
* Five: The epenthetic case characterises the head completely with regard to its descriptor.
* Five: The epenthetic case characterises the head completely with regard to its descriptor.
Line 664: Line 689:


'''Rule Three. Regarding all outward relations, cases''' (i.e. the compound's inner case [not to be confused with its epenthetic case], the outer cases of its objects, and cases of pronouns referring to it) '''refer to the head.'''
'''Rule Three. Regarding all outward relations, cases''' (i.e. the compound's inner case [not to be confused with its epenthetic case], the outer cases of its objects, and cases of pronouns referring to it) '''refer to the head.'''
{|
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|-
| {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|adhkmàr mlỳdhy.
|adhkmàr mlỳdhy.
|eat-FACT-allow-LOC-1 sweet-ACC-ACC-2.
|eat-FACT-allow-LOC-1 sweet-ACC-ACC-2.
|''a place where one may eat sweets; a place for eating sweets''}}
|''a place where one may eat sweets; a place for eating sweets''}}


| {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|ngengadàxt fỳta.
|ngengadàxt fỳta.
|run-FACT-must-FACT-1 fast-ACC-FACT-1
|run-FACT-must-FACT-1 fast-ACC-FACT-1
|''[He] has to run fast.''}}
|''[He] has to run fast.''}}
|}


These examples talk about the location of eating, as opposed to the location of allowing; about eating sweets, as opposed to allowing sweets; the running is fast, as opposed to the necessity; etc.
These examples are about the location of eating, as opposed to the location of allowing; about eating sweets, as opposed to allowing sweets; about fast running, as opposed to a fast necessity; etc.


Number and gender of [[#Nouns|nouns]] are compounds from brackets which are first inverted to turn the more salient word into the compound's head: ''dè mlỳe. ⇔ mlỳ dèy.'' "several givers" ⇒ ''demlè.'' "givers". The inner nominative (''-e-'') becomes the epenthetic case, and the new inner case also has to be a nominative per Rule Three. ''demlỳ.'' (inner {{sc|acc}}), by contrast, is "something given by several people".
Number and gender of [[#Nouns|nouns]] are compounds from brackets which are first inverted to turn the more salient word into the compound's head: ''dè mlỳe. ⇔ mlỳ dèy.'' "several givers" ⇒ ''demlè.'' "givers". The inner nominative (''-e-'') becomes the epenthetic case, and the new inner case also has to be a nominative per Rule Three of compounding. ''demlỳ.'' (inner {{sc|acc}}), by contrast, is "something given by several people", and ''dymlè.'' (epenthetic {{sc|acc}}) is "a giver of several things".


Compounds expressing degrees of [[#Adjectives and the like|adjectives]] are also formed from brackets. They have an epenthetic consecutive (''-il-''), which stems from the corresponding abstract noun: ''gmrìl dmỳil. ⇔ dmỳ gmrìly.'' "much warmth" ⇒ ''gmrildmìl.'' "heat" (abstract noun formed with inner {{sc|cons}}), ''gmrildmỳ.'' "hot" (adjective with inner {{sc|acc}}). Degrees of comparison are often combined with [[#Predicative|predicatives]]:
Compounds expressing degrees of [[#Adjectives and the like|adjectives]] are also formed from brackets. They have an epenthetic consecutive (''-il-''), which stems from the corresponding abstract noun: ''gmrìl dmỳil. ⇔ dmỳ gmrìly.'' "much warmth" ⇒ ''gmrildmìl.'' "heat" (abstract noun formed with inner {{sc|cons}}), ''gmrildmỳ.'' "hot" (adjective with inner {{sc|acc}}). Degrees of comparison are often combined with qualitative or partitive outer cases and with [[#Predicative|predicatives]]:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; QUALDAT:qualitative dative case; 1:first level; 2:second level
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; QUALACC:qualitative accusative case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|prilghtìlzhd lyghì bỳghim.
|prilghtìlzhd lyghỳ bỳghym.
|beautiful-CONS-more-CONS-1 house-ACC-DAT-2 garden-ACC-QUALDAT-2.
|beautiful-CONS-more-CONS-1 house-ACC-ACC-2 garden-ACC-QUALACC-2.
|''The house is more beautiful than the garden.'' (The garden is the basis of comparison for the house.)}}
|''The house is more beautiful than the garden.'' (The garden is the basis of comparison for the house.)}}


{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; PARTDAT:partitive dative case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; PARTACC:partitive accusative case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
|prilghìlst lỳghi ziǘ ghngỳing.
|prilghìlst lỳghy ziǘ ghngỳyng.
|beautiful-CONS-more-CONS-1 house-ACC-DAT-2 PI<sub>n−3</sub>-DAT-BEN-3 all-ACC-PARTDAT-2.
|beautiful-CONS-most-CONS-1 house-ACC-ACC-2 PI<sub>n−3</sub>-DAT-BEN-3 all-ACC-PARTACC-2.
|''Your house is the most beautiful of all.'' (''Everything'' is the set from which the house is thought to be taken.)}}
|''Your house is the most beautiful of all [houses].'' (''All houses'' form the set from which your house is thought to be taken.)}}


The analogues of the present and future tenses are formed like so – note that inversion changes the pronoun's stem along with its level:
The analogues of the present and future tenses are formed like so – note that inversion changes the pronoun's stem along with its level:
Line 696: Line 718:
|zdàs dhàarh. ⇔ wà zdàrhsa. ⇒ zdarhswà.
|zdàs dhàarh. ⇔ wà zdàrhsa. ⇒ zdarhswà.
|seat-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-FACT-TEMP-2. ⇔ PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1 seat-TEMP-FACT-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1.
|seat-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-FACT-TEMP-2. ⇔ PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1 seat-TEMP-FACT-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1.
|''[She] sits down at the time of the parole. ⇒ [She] sits down now.''}}
|''The time of sitting down is the parole. ⇒ [She] sits down now.''}}


{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
|zdàs prỳarh. ⇔ prỳ zdàrhsy. ⇒ zdarhsprà.
|zdàs prỳarh. ⇔ prỳ zdàrhsy. ⇒ zdarhsprà.
|seat-FACT-1 front-ACC-TEMP-2. ⇔ front-ACC-1 seat-TEMP-ACC-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-front-FACT-1.
|seat-FACT-1 front-ACC-TEMP-2. ⇔ front-ACC-1 seat-TEMP-ACC-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-front-FACT-1.
|''[She] sits down at a time in front [of the parole]. ⇒ [She] will sit down.''}}
|''The time of sitting down is in front [of the parole]. ⇒ [She] will sit down.''}}
The past is formed analogously to the future.


==Example text==
==Example text==
[[File:Lemizh text sample.png|600px]]
[[File:Lemizh text sample.png|600px]]


====stedrỳzh thìrhfi xtrỳghy.====
===stedrỳzh thìrhfi xtrỳghy.===
krỳgh dghngireì prilxpilghkỳarh. mangỳ srungbỳng lyngghỳng yngshwỳng fỳü. zhöazhghngìl tmỳil. ghngàgzh smìa prỳal ghngyé dhàbdhy lunguỳ ùyl mỳu fplyxár tỳarh. dmát feì sxngengzè ishkènge. ghìlt krighmyngthxì xtrỳngghi swyshỳ ghỳxy fplyxòr zhöyzhỳm xngàrorm. dmìlt öngkrỳngty zhryỳ rèshy esfàsy sxngyzdmýi, usrỳngy xazhgèsty ghngỳeng, frekrỳngfy rilghdzhỳwby pthèby, dgheipysrỳngdy psrèby rhèzhem, dghistngỳngty ghỳxy zangỳa dghildhfmlýyrh, ngiftngyghtmỳngy krültlìy zùe gỳghda. xtrỳgh swyshý stedrỳzh thìrfi. dngilszhrìl bdhyrgzhyngỳng xüxtrỳngyng prilkỳarh ötìlil skmyngìlng ghỳngsilng. dngilszhìlwb ráxpy thìlfi. fö̀l gwiltngìlöl dmàty föpysryfỳ ngỳu.
krỳgh dghngireì prilxpilghkỳarh. mangỳ srungbỳng lyngghỳng yngshwỳng fỳü. zhöazhghngìl tmỳil. ghngàgzh smìa prỳal ghngyé dhàbdhy lunguỳ ùyl mỳu fplyxár tỳarh. dmát feì sxngengzè ishkènge. ghìlt krighmyngthxì xtrỳngghi swyshỳ ghỳxy fplyxòr zhöyzhỳm xngàrorm. dmìlt öngkrỳngty zhryỳ rèshy esfàsy sxngyzdmýi, usrỳngy xazhgèsty ghngỳeng, frekrỳngfy rilghdzhỳwby pthèby, dgheipysrỳngdy psrèby rhèzhem, dghistngỳngty ghỳxy zangỳa dghildhfmlýyrh, ngiftngyghtmỳngy krültlìy zùe gỳghda. xtrỳgh swyshý stedrỳzh thìrfi. dngilszhrìl bdhyrgzhyngỳng xüxtrỳngyng prilkỳarh ötìlil skmyngìlng ghỳngsilng. dngilszhìlwb ráxpy thìlfi. fö̀l gwiltngìlöl dmàty föpysryfỳ ngỳu.


rỳ zhryỳrh thìzgy gwiltngìly rhàghgy dmatngìe thìrfy. là xángska matngiè ytfỳyrh dmyý fplyxór dyxtngyngà mànga prilzhryngỳr iltỳngzhdyr. dmàt ytfỳarh ryý mìlngorh xngyì prilkyár mìlngorh xtrỳngghi kshrextý mengthxì prỳar zìe, fplỳngxe fywýr déngske xtryghè sxngezì xngỳnge.
rỳ zhryỳrh thìzgy gwiltngìly rhàghgy dmatngìe thìrfy. là xángska matngiè ytfỳyrh dmyý fplyxór dyxtngyngà mànga prilzhryngỳr iltỳngzhdyr. dmàt ytfỳarh ryý mìlngorh xngyì prilkyár mìlngorh xtrỳngghi kshrextý mengthxì prỳar zìe, fplỳngxe fywýr déngske xtryghè sxngezì xngỳnge.


====The Legend of the Seventh Planet====
===The Legend of the Seventh Planet===
A long time ago there was a tribe of nomads. They possessed neither writing nor houses nor horses. But they were truly human. They were curious; this means, above all, that they took interest in the useless, for the celestial objects were of no use to them yet. They looked at the Sun and the Moon. They had named the constellations and the six planets moving across the sky like the humans across the earth. They knew dim Mercury, who liked to hide in the glare of the Sun; Venus, the brightest of all; reddish and angry Mars; majestic father Jupiter; Saturn, who seemed to stand still for weeks; and even Uranus had been caught by their keen eyes. Six planets, and the legend of a seventh. Maybe it had been the minor planet Vesta, or a comet centuries or millennia earlier. Maybe it was the attraction of the number seven. For Neptune is invisible to the naked eye.
A long time ago there was a tribe of nomads. They possessed neither writing nor houses nor horses. But they were truly human. They were curious; this means, above all, that they took interest in the useless, for the celestial objects were of no use to them yet. They looked at the Sun and the Moon. They had named the constellations and the six planets moving across the sky like the humans across the earth. They knew dim Mercury, who liked to hide in the glare of the Sun; Venus, the brightest of all; reddish and angry Mars; majestic father Jupiter; Saturn, who seemed to stand still for weeks; and even Uranus had been caught by their keen eyes. Six planets, and the legend of a seventh. Maybe it had been the minor planet Vesta, or a comet centuries or millennia earlier. Maybe it was the attraction of the number seven. For Neptune is invisible to the naked eye.


One youngster thought to himself that he could not live without seeing the seventh planet. He lay awake searching the sky for many nights, neglected his duties, and became thinner and thinner. And one night, lying with the Earth behind his back, and with the looping planets and the stars above him, he saw the depth of the sky and the planets circling the Sun, and among them the Earth.
One youngster thought to himself that he could not live without seeing the seventh planet. He lay awake searching the sky for many nights, neglected his duties, and became thinner and thinner. And one night, lying with the Earth behind his back, and with the looping planets and the stars above him, he saw the depth of the sky and the planets circling the Sun, and among them the Earth.
==See also==
* [[Literature:The Tower of Babel#Lemizh|The Tower of Babel § Lemizh]] (with interlinear glossing)


==External links==
==External links==
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[[File:Copyleft1.png|20px]] ''This article is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License]. It includes material from the Lemizh homepage, which has the same license.''
[[File:Copyleft1.png|20px]] ''This article is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License]. It includes material from the Lemizh homepage, which has the same license.''


<!--[[Category:Lemizh language]]-->
<!--[[Category:Lemizh language| ]]-->
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[[Category:Conlangs]]
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