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Lemizh: Difference between revisions
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Brackets confer reality; copyedit
Anypodetos (talk | contribs) (Negation; copyedit) |
Anypodetos (talk | contribs) (Brackets confer reality; copyedit) |
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| ''ngà.'' "to make something nonexistent" || ''ngè.'' "one making something nonexistent" || ''ngỳ.'' "(something) '''nonexistent'''" || ''ngì.'' "something made nonexistent, something destroyed" || ''ngìl.'' "the consequence of making nonexistent = nothingness" | | ''ngà.'' "to make something nonexistent" || ''ngè.'' "one making something nonexistent" || ''ngỳ.'' "(something) '''nonexistent'''" || ''ngì.'' "something made nonexistent, something destroyed" || ''ngìl.'' "the consequence of making nonexistent = nothingness" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''dwà.'' "to make two things | | ''dwà.'' "to make two individuals/things" || ''dwè.'' "one making two individuals" || ''dwỳ.'' "'''two''' (individuals)" || ''dwì.'' "something made into two (individuals)" || ''dwìl.'' "the consequence of making two individuals = twoness" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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! Inner factive !! Inner nominative !! Inner accusative !! Inner dative !! Inner causative | ! Inner factive !! Inner nominative !! Inner accusative !! Inner dative !! Inner causative | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''pthàb.'' "to be angry" || ''pthèb.'' "an angry one; '''angry'''" || ''pthỳb.'' "the content/object of one's anger" || ''pthìb.'' "one that one's anger reaches" || ''pthèlb.'' "one causing someone anger; one annoying someone" | | ''pthàb.'' "to be angry" || ''pthèb.'' "an angry one; '''angry'''" || ''pthỳb.'' "the content/object of one's anger; one ''about'' whom someone is angry" || ''pthìb.'' "one that one's anger reaches; one ''with'' whom someone is angry" || ''pthèlb.'' "one causing someone anger; one annoying someone" | ||
|} | |} | ||
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The first word in a sentence (the main predicate) is of first level by definition. The level of the next word is determined by the main predicate's accent and by the type of pause between the two words, the level of the third word is determined by the accent of the second and the pause between these two, and so on. | The first word in a sentence (the main predicate) is of first level by definition. The level of the next word is determined by the main predicate's accent and by the type of pause between the two words, the level of the third word is determined by the accent of the second and the pause between these two, and so on. | ||
Here is the complete list of pause/accent combinations | Here is the complete list of pause/accent combinations: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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In the diagram, the main predicate's three objects are enclosed in ellipses. Objects of the same word are called ''sibling objects'' or just ''siblings'', and the word they are subordinate to is their ''predicate''. Note that ''predicate'' and ''object'' are relative terms like ''parent'' and ''child''. | In the diagram, the main predicate's three objects are enclosed in ellipses. Objects of the same word are called ''sibling objects'' or just ''siblings'', and the word they are subordinate to is their ''predicate''. Note that ''predicate'' and ''object'' are relative terms like ''parent'' and ''child''. | ||
The table of level markers implies that only the first object of a predicate can be marked as agent. | The table of level markers implies that only the first object of a predicate can be marked as agent. So Lemizh can be said to have VSO word order, or more correctly VAO (verb–agent–object). | ||
'''Rule Three. The outer case of the first word of an object defines its relation to its predicate's stem via its descriptor; the outer case of a level 1 word is zero.''' | '''Rule Three. The outer case of the first word of an object defines its relation to its predicate's stem via its descriptor; the outer case of a level 1 word is zero.''' | ||
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|''Lucy takes a bottle from Father Christmas.''}} | |''Lucy takes a bottle from Father Christmas.''}} | ||
We need not mark an object as agentive if we consider this information | We need not mark an object as agentive if we do not consider this information important. The English translations are only rough approximations: | ||
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive | {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive | ||
|dà lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe. | |dà lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe. | ||
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The bottle and Lucy, having third level, are still more hypothetical than the action of giving; their existence does not follow from grammar but from logic and context: someone nonexistent cannot be given something. A better example would be "I see white mice", where the existence of the mice may or may not be inferred from context such as the amount of alcohol I have drunk. | The bottle and Lucy, having third level, are still more hypothetical than the action of giving; their existence does not follow from grammar but from logic and context: someone nonexistent cannot be given something. A better example would be "I see white mice", where the existence of the mice may or may not be inferred from context such as the amount of alcohol I have drunk. | ||
In the sentence "I think that Father Christmas wants to give Lucy a bottle", "to think" is grammatically real, while the other two verbs, so to say, are pushed down one degree of reality. | In the sentence "I think that Father Christmas wants to give Lucy a bottle", "to think" is grammatically real, while the other two verbs, so to say, are pushed down one degree of reality. | ||
Inversion changes degrees of reality; only the second of the following sentences contains the information that he actually gives something: | |||
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level | {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level | ||
|làxt dày. ⇔ dà lỳxta. | |làxt dày. ⇔ dà lỳxta. | ||
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|''[There is] one giving Lucy a bottle, Father Christmas.''}} | |''[There is] one giving Lucy a bottle, Father Christmas.''}} | ||
Rules Four and Five guarantee that the giver is identical to Father Christmas: both are the sender of the same instance of the stem ''d–'' "give" (the giver via its inner nominative, Father Christmas via its outer nominative), and both are the ''complete'' sender of this action. This type of construction, where an object's outer case matches its predicate's inner case, is called a '''bracket'''. Brackets are | Rules Four and Five guarantee that the giver is identical to Father Christmas: both are the sender of the same instance of the stem ''d–'' "give" (the giver via its inner nominative, Father Christmas via its outer nominative), and both are the ''complete'' sender of this action. This type of construction, where an object's outer case matches its predicate's inner case, is called a '''bracket'''. The identity of predicate and object means that the object is as real as its predicate in the sense of Rule Seven. We say that a bracket confers reality on its object. | ||
Brackets are used extensively: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|dwỳw lusỳü. | |dwỳw lusỳü. | ||
|bottle-ACC-1 Lucy-ACC-'''BEN'''-2. | |bottle-ACC-1 Lucy-ACC-'''BEN'''-2. | ||
|''Lucy's bottle'' (Lucy is the beneficiary of making the bottle | |''Lucy's bottle'' (Lucy is the beneficiary of making the bottle.)}} | ||
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive | {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive | ||
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===Dependent clauses=== | ===Dependent clauses=== | ||
We have already discussed the infinitive clause in "Father Christmas wants '''to give Lucy a bottle'''" under Rule Seven. | |||
The difference between English gerund clauses and that-clauses roughly translates into a difference between an inner factive (''action'') and an inner affirmative (''fact''): | The difference between English gerund clauses and that-clauses roughly translates into a difference between an inner factive (''action'') and an inner affirmative (''fact''): | ||
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|''The children called Lucy a hero.'' (The children gave the designation of hero to Lucy.)}} | |''The children called Lucy a hero.'' (The children gave the designation of hero to Lucy.)}} | ||
Predicatives with the verb "to make" typically correspond to Lemizh sentences with a nominal or adjectival verb as the main predicate. This can be interpreted as the accusative object – here "ill" – being absorbed ("swallowed | Predicatives with the verb "to make" typically correspond to Lemizh sentences with a nominal or adjectival verb as the main predicate. This can be interpreted as the accusative object – here "ill" – being absorbed ("swallowed") by the main predicate: | ||
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level | {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level | ||
|mà ydhè gwilbkyỳ wỳgwi. → gwilbkà ydhè wỳgwi. | |mà ydhè gwilbkyỳ wỳgwi. → gwilbkà ydhè wỳgwi. | ||
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|wáx wìe. | |wáx wìe. | ||
|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−1</sub>-'''DAT'''-'''NOM'''-2A. | |speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−1</sub>-'''DAT'''-'''NOM'''-2A. | ||
|''to talk to oneself. He is talking to himself.'' (The recipient of speaking is its sender.)}} | |''to talk to oneself. [He] is talking to himself.'' (The recipient of speaking is its sender.)}} | ||
| {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive | | {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive | ||
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{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Possessive determiner !! Vocative | ! Possessive (≙ genitive) determiner !! Vocative | ||
|- | |- | ||
| {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level | | {{Interlinear|display-messages=no|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level | ||
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|want-FACT-1 eat-FACT-ACC-2. ⇒ eat-FACT-want-FACT-1. | |want-FACT-1 eat-FACT-ACC-2. ⇒ eat-FACT-want-FACT-1. | ||
|''[She] wants to eat.'' (See the inflection of [[#Verbs|verbs]]; the other moods follow the same pattern.)}} | |''[She] wants to eat.'' (See the inflection of [[#Verbs|verbs]]; the other moods follow the same pattern.)}} | ||
Here the accusative ending is lost and has to be deduced from context. | |||
'''Rule Two. In the relationship between the original predicate and object, the rules of sentence grammar are retained as far as applicable.''' | '''Rule Two. In the relationship between the original predicate and object, the rules of sentence grammar are retained as far as applicable.''' | ||