Linguifex

Mila: Difference between revisions

Page Discussion

Mila (view source)

Revision as of 13:43, 30 October 2016

22,634 bytes added ,  30 October 2016
no edit summary
No edit summary
No edit summary
Line 3: Line 3:
|name = Mila
|name = Mila
|nativename = ɷʌυ
|nativename = ɷʌυ
|pronunciation = [ˈmi.lɐ]
|pronunciation = [ˈmi.ɫɐ]
|creator = Gary Taylor-Raebel
|creator = Gary Taylor-Raebel
|setting = Kukca Planet
|setting = Kukca Planet
Line 164: Line 164:


/j/ This is a voiced palatal approximant [j]. In coda position it is produced with slightly more friction  [j ̝]. It may appear in both onset and coda positions. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''vvv''' /ʹjija/ [ʹjijɐ] ''animal''; '''v́ιɷ''' /ʹajhum/ [ʹaj ̝hum ~ ʹaj̊ ̝hum] ''egg''.1; '''ɔιv''' /ʹkuhja/ [ʹkuhjɐ ~ ʹkuhj̊ɐ] ''leg''; '''υɔυ:v''' /lugʹlij/ [ɫugʹɫij ̝] ''house''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">lat</span>.
/j/ This is a voiced palatal approximant [j]. In coda position it is produced with slightly more friction  [j ̝]. It may appear in both onset and coda positions. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''vvv''' /ʹjija/ [ʹjijɐ] ''animal''; '''v́ιɷ''' /ʹajhum/ [ʹaj ̝hum ~ ʹaj̊ ̝hum] ''egg''.1; '''ɔιv''' /ʹkuhja/ [ʹkuhjɐ ~ ʹkuhj̊ɐ] ''leg''; '''υɔυ:v''' /lugʹlij/ [ɫugʹɫij ̝] ''house''-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">lat</span>.
====Distinguishing Features====
{| class = "wikitable"
|-
! Consonants
! p
! b
! t
! d
! c
! ɟ
! k
! ɡ
! m
! n
! s
! z
! h
! r
! l
! j
|-
! anterior
| +
| +
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| -
| +
| +
| -
|-
! labial
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
|-
! velar
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| -
|-
! continuant
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
| +
|-
! nasal
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
|-
! sonorant
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| -
| -
| -
| +
| +
| +
|-
! voiced
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| +
| +
| -
| +
| -
| +
| +
| +
|}


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Line 182: Line 331:


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
====Stress====


Line 268: Line 418:
====Romanisation====
====Romanisation====


The Romanisation of Mila follows more closely the final pronunciation than the underlying phonological structure. So degeminated consonants as well as elided liquids are not shown, whilst voiced obstruents are shown as voiced. Unstressed [ɐ] is shown as 'a'. Stress is not normally indicated, as it is usually predictable based on the word root, but it may be indicated with an acute accent above the stressed syllable. The romanisation has the advantage that it allows for irregularities to be shown, such that the past and future tenses of ''to sleep'' as given in the previous section are shown as 'inhuhu' and 'uhu' respectively.
The Romanisation of Mila follows more closely the final pronunciation than the underlying phonological structure. So degeminated consonants as well as elided liquids are not shown, whilst voiced obstruents are shown as voiced. Unstressed [ɐ] is shown as 'a'. Stress is not normally indicated, as it is usually predictable based on the word root, but it may be indicated with an acute accent above the stressed syllable. The romanisation has the advantage that it allows for irregularities to be shown, such that the past and future tenses of ''to sleep'' as given in the previous section are shown as 'inhuhu' and 'uhu' respectively. Also note that the lateral [ɫ] is represented as '''l''' when Romanised.


===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
Line 412: Line 562:
====Locative====
====Locative====


The locative is used to indicate position, both physical and temporal and can be translated as at, in, on, by, near etc. It is formed by the prefix '''ʌ:''' [i(r)-] placed directly on the noun it refers to. It never takes stress and so the stress will remain on the syllable it would appear on if the prefix were not present.
The locative prefix '''ʌ:''' [i- ~ iɾ-] is used to indicate position, both physical and temporal and can be translated as at, in, on, by, near etc. It is formed by the prefix '''ʌ:''' [i(r)-] placed directly on the noun it refers to. It never takes stress and so the stress will remain on the syllable it would appear on if the prefix were not present.
:::onυ:n-'''ʌ:'''ɔυɷ-nnń
:::onυ:n-'''ʌ:'''ɔυɷ-nnń
:::[ʹpiɟ.lic '''i'''ʹgu.mɐ ɟɐ]
:::[ʹpiɟ.lic '''i'''ʹgu.mɐ ɟɐ]
Line 420: Line 570:
====Supraessive====
====Supraessive====


The supraessive prefix '''ɔ:''' is used to indicate position above the noun it modifies. As with the locative it does not affect stress placement. So '''ɔ:ιnc''' [ukʹhicsɐ] '<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">spre</span>-cloud' means simply ''above the clouds''. It usually refers to position without physical contact, though occasionally it may have a similar meaning to ''on top of'' or ''at the top of''. An example of this is '''ʌ:'''ɔυn [iʹguɟɐ] which, by using the locative here, means ''at/on the mountain''. By using the supraessive, though, we have '''ɔ:'''ɔυn [uʹkuɟɐ] which would mean ''at the top of the mountain''. Another example would be '''ʌ:'''ɔυɷ [iʹgumɐ] which can mean ''on the table'' but could equally indicate ''at'' or ''by the table'' using the locative, but '''ɔ:'''ɔυɷ [uʹkumɐ] takes away the ambiguity and can only mean ''on (top of) the table''.
The supraessive prefix '''ɔ:''' [uk- ~ ug- ~ u-] is used to indicate position above the noun it modifies. As with the locative it does not affect stress placement. So '''ɔ:ιnc''' [ukʹhicsɐ] '<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">spre</span>-cloud' means simply ''above the clouds''. It usually refers to position without physical contact, though occasionally it may have a similar meaning to ''on top of'' or ''at the top of''. An example of this is '''ʌ:'''ɔυn [iʹguɟɐ] which, by using the locative here, means ''at/on the mountain''. By using the supraessive, though, we have '''ɔ:'''ɔυn [uʹkuɟɐ] which would mean ''at the top of the mountain''. Another example would be '''ʌ:'''ɔυɷ [iʹgumɐ] which can mean ''on the table'' but could equally indicate ''at'' or ''by the table'' using the locative, but '''ɔ:'''ɔυɷ [uʹkumɐ] takes away the ambiguity and can only mean ''on (top of) the table''.


It can also be used for figurative purposes, so a king could be spoken about as being ‘on top of the people’ '''ɔ:υυυ''' [ugʹɫuɫɐ]. Some of these words have taken on derivational meanings, so the example just given '''ɔ:υυυ''' also means ''haughty'' and as such has become confused with the identical verbal prefix ɔ: (see below) which is used for iteration, such that the homonym '''ɔ:υυυ''' can also mean ''crowded''.
It can also be used for figurative purposes, so a king could be spoken about as being ‘on top of the people’ '''ɔ:υυυ''' [ugʹɫuɫɐ]. Some of these words have taken on derivational meanings, so the example just given '''ɔ:υυυ''' also means ''haughty'' and as such has become confused with the identical verbal prefix ɔ: (see below) which is used for iteration, such that the homonym '''ɔ:υυυ''' can also mean ''crowded''.
Line 426: Line 576:
====Subessive====
====Subessive====


The subessive prefix '''o:''' is used to indicate position below or under the noun it modifies. As with all other affixes of place it does not affect the stress of the stem. '''o:ɔυɷ''' [upʹkumɐ] thus means ''under the table''. As with '''ɔ:''' it could have a more figurative meaning by meaning below in rank.
The subessive prefix '''o:''' [up- ~ ub- ~ u-] is used to indicate position below or under the noun it modifies. As with all other affixes of place it does not affect the stress of the stem. '''o:ɔυɷ''' [upʹkumɐ] thus means ''under the table''. As with '''ɔ:''' it could have a more figurative meaning by meaning below in rank.


====Postessive====
====Postessive====


The postessive prefix '''ω:''' is used to indicate position behind the noun it modifies. Again it does not affect stress placement. '''ω:ɔυɷ''' [inʹgumɐ] therefore means ''behind the table''. When describing directions it can imply ''further away than, but in the same general direction''. Saying '''ω:υɾo''' [inʹɫitpɐ] would mean ''beyond the village''.
The postessive prefix '''ω:''' [in- ~ i-] is used to indicate position behind the noun it modifies. Again it does not affect stress placement. '''ω:ɔυɷ''' [inʹgumɐ] therefore means ''behind the table''. When describing directions it can imply ''further away than, but in the same general direction''. Saying '''ω:υɾo''' [inʹɫitpɐ] would mean ''beyond the village''.


If this is placed on a temporal noun then it has the meaning ''before'', so '''ω:ɔnɾ:v''' [inʹgictij] means ''before dawn''.
If this is placed on a temporal noun then it has the meaning ''before'', so '''ω:ɔnɾ:v''' [inʹgictij] means ''before dawn''.
Line 436: Line 586:
====Antessive====
====Antessive====


The antessive prefix '''ι:''' is used with the opposite meaning of the postessive. It therefore has the general meaning of in front of the noun it modifies, so '''ι:ɔυɷ''' [uhʹkumɐ] means ''in front of the table'' and with directions '''ι:υɾo''' [uhʹɫitpɐ] has the meaning of ''before reaching the village''.
The antessive prefix '''ι:''' [uh- ~ u-] is used with the opposite meaning of the postessive. It therefore has the general meaning of in front of the noun it modifies, so '''ι:ɔυɷ''' [uhʹkumɐ] means ''in front of the table'' and with directions '''ι:υɾo''' [uhʹɫitpɐ] has the meaning of ''before reaching the village''.


With temporal nouns it has the meaning ''after'' making '''ι:ɔnɾ:v''' [uhʹkictij] indicate ''after dawn''.
With temporal nouns it has the meaning ''after'' making '''ι:ɔnɾ:v''' [uhʹkictij] indicate ''after dawn''.
Line 442: Line 592:
====Intrative====
====Intrative====


The intrative suffix ''':cc''' indicates position amongst, between or within the noun it modifies. It is quite often substituted with just the locative, so basic '''ʌ:vvɔ''' [iʹjijgɐ] means ''at'' or ''in the forest''. To specify more clearly the position amongst the trees we can say '''vvɔ:cc''' [ʹjijgisɐ]. There is no particularly great difference between the two meanings but sometimes the intrative will be used where the noun already has a prefix. So whereas '''ʌ:ɾ:ɔυn''' [iɾitʹkuɟɐ] is perfectly legitimate to mean ''in the mountains'', '''ɾ:ɔυn:cc''' [itʹkuɟisɐ] would much more likely be used.
The intrative suffix ''':cc''' [-isa ~ -sis ~ -zis] indicates position amongst, between or within the noun it modifies. It is quite often substituted with just the locative, so basic '''ʌ:vvɔ''' [iʹjijgɐ] means ''at'' or ''in the forest''. To specify more clearly the position amongst the trees we can say '''vvɔ:cc''' [ʹjijgisɐ]. There is no particularly great difference between the two meanings but sometimes the intrative will be used where the noun already has a prefix. So whereas '''ʌ:ɾ:ɔυn''' [iɾitʹkuɟɐ] is perfectly legitimate to mean ''in the mountains'', '''ɾ:ɔυn:cc''' [itʹkuɟisɐ] would much more likely be used.
 
====Lative====
 
The main use of the lative suffix ''':v''' [-ʹij ~ -ʹja] is to express motion towards the noun which is modifies. It can often be replaced by the locative, so we can have for example '''ʌ:υɔυ-óoo-ʌ:υιɾ''' [iʹɫugɫɐ ɐp inʹɫuhtɐ] which means ''I went home'', however this could also mean ''I walked at home'', but usually the context is clear. If however we want to be more precise then the lative will be used, and its use is also considered more eloquent. So the above sentence can be rendered with '''υɔυ:v-óoo-ω:υιɾ''' [ɫugʹɫij ɐp inʹɫuhtɐ]. Note that by adding the lative suffix the stress also shifts to the syllable containing the consonant. Another example would be '''ɷωɔ:υɾ:v''' [mingudʹja] ‘towards the announcer’.
 
The lative is used additionally when addressing people giving it a vocative sense. If we wish to say, for example, ''O boy'' (when addressing a child whose name you do not know), this would be done by saying '''υʌɾ:v-ooó'''. It should be noted that it forms its own sentence and so requires a predicate, making it translate roughly as ''it is to the boy''. There are levels of formality as to how this is pronounced. In the most formal setting this would be [ɫiʹdij puʹbap], but see the section on [[#Pronouns|pronouns]] for more details. The most usual rendition of this and also the most neutral would be with a reduced pronoun, giving [ɫiʹdij bɐ]. Very colloquially, though, the pronoun will be dropped, giving just [ɫiʹdij]. This latter form would only be used with others with whom there is an intimate bond, so a close friend, or amongst other members of one's own clan, and also when calling an animal.
 
====Ablative====
 
====Vialis====
 
====Perlative====
 
====Essive====
 
====Alternative====
 
====Benefactive====
 
====Semblative====
 
===Pronouns===
 
As Mila is a pro-drop language (i.e. one where pronouns may sometimes be dropped), subject pronouns are not common, although they may be used for added emphasis. In sentences, though, a predicate must always be present and here a series of empty predicate pronouns are used with intransitive verbs which may provide additional information which would not be required in English. Pronouns also vary depending on if they substitute animate or inanimate objects and if actions take place in the presence of a speaker or further from the speaker.
 
====Non-Predicate Pronouns====
 
The pronouns may be divided slightly differently from those in English. Whereas in English we have singular and plural and first, second and third person pronouns, Mila does not have a difference between singular and plural in the subject, as this plurality is indicated on the predicate. Also the second and third person pronouns overlap slightly in Mila, where the animate second person pronoun is used for any person present, so cover ‘you’, ‘he’, ‘she’ and ‘they’ and the third person is reserved for persons absent. It is important to know this difference, as it would be considered degrading to someone present to refer to them in the third person, even if ‘he’ or ‘she’ would be used in English. The animate pronouns can be further broken down into when referring to other lula and when referring to other animals or plants. If they encountered humans they would also refer to humans using the animal pronouns and not the lula ones, but this should not be seen as a slight. The following table gives the animate pronouns in their base form:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! animate pronouns
! Referring to lula
! Referring to non-lula
|-
! 1<sup>st</sup> person
| υυo [ʹɫubɐ]
| vvo [ʹjijbɐ]
|-
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person
| υυɾ [ʹɫudɐ]
| vvɾ [ʹjijdɐ]
|-
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person
| υυn [ʹɫuɟɐ]
| vvn [ʹjijɟɐ]
|}
 
Obviously the non-lula animate 1st person pronoun is not often used, but may be found in stories involving animals/plants and humans should not be offended by being referred to using the animal forms, and humans would also probably be expected to use the animal forms when referring to themselves, but it is best to take a cue from the person speaking to you as to which form is allowed.
 
As the forms given may refer to either singular or plural forms the form '''υυo''' [ʹɫubɐ] means both ''I'' and ''we''. In order to place these into the subject form then the suffix ''':n''' [-ic] must be added (and with this the final -a of the stem is lost. The affixes showing the other cases may also be added such that '''υυo:v''' [ɫuʹbij] with the lative suffix means ''towards me'' or ''towards us''.
 
The inanimate forms will obviously never have a first or second person form, but they are split down into whether an object is nearby (within reach) by using '''ɾɾn''' [ʹtitcɐ], within sight but out of reach by using '''nnn''' [ʹcicɐ], absent at the time of speaking by using '''oon''' [ʹpupcɐ], or if they refer to an abstract noun by using '''ιιn''' [ʹhuhcɐ].
 
As mentioned these are rarely used in the subject form apart from if special emphasis is used. So ''I am happy'' would be:
:::'''óιn'''
:::[ʹaphic]
:::happy.1
 
whereas if we wish to emphasise that '''I''' ''am happy'' and not someone else then we can use:
:::'''υυo:n-óιn'''
:::[ʹɫubic ʹaphic]
:::I-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> happy.1
 
====Possessive Pronouns====
 
These are simply formed based on the base pronouns as given above. To form the possessives the adjectival suffix ''':ω''' /-in/ is added (compare the section on [[#Adjectives|adjectives]]). This form is then placed before the item possessed. The combination of possessive pronoun and item possessed then behave like a compound noun and the possessive pronoun will only take secondary stress. To say, for example, ‘my book is heavy’ we have:
 
:::'''υυo:ω-onυ:n-ɔωύ'''
:::[ɫubin ʹpiɟɫic kiʹnaɫ]
:::I(or we)-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> book-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> heavy.3
 
If we wish to say something like ‘your companion is beautiful’ and he or she is present then we would say:
 
:::'''υυɾ:ω-υoυ:n-nύo'''
:::[ɫudin ʹɫubɫic ʹcaɫbɐ]
:::you-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> companion-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> beautiful.2
 
Note here that the predicate form is given in the second singular as the person is present.
 
Possessive pronouns are not used when referring to items which are intrinsic to the possessor, such as parts of the body or one's clan etc. Instead these are placed in the subject position but the predicate must agree with the possessor and not the possessed object. So for example:
 
:::'''υɾɾ:n-ócω'''
:::[ʹɫitic ʹapsin]
:::hand-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> cold.1
:::''my hands are cold''
 
where the word ''cold'' agrees with the first person. Note that this does not take into consideration the plurality of the word ''hand'' and one must explicitly say if just one or both hands are implied if necessary.
 
If the item possessed is possessed by more than one person, then the agreement will also show the plurality. This gives:
 
:::'''ɾ:υoω:ʌ:n-ʌ́ιɔ:ɾ'''
:::[idʹɫubniɟɐ ʹaɾhuktɐ]
:::clan-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> angry.1-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pl</span>
:::''my (or our) clan is angry''
 
====Reflexive Pronouns====
 
The reflexive pronouns are also based on the base forms as given above, however these are placed in the predicate position and agree with the subject, so these will show whether the subject is singular or plural. Added to this they will also be shortened and unstressed in normal speech as we will see is common for many pronouns in predicate position, the long forms reserved for the most formal speech. The shortened forms are, however, not indicated in the orthography, so the pronunciation does not follow a regular pattern and must just be learnt. For animate pronouns we therefore have the following forms (the formal forms are given in brackets):
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! animate reflexives
! lula
! non-lula
|-
! singular
|
|
|-
! 1<sup>st</sup> person
| '''ύυo''' [ɐp] ([ʹaɫup])
| '''v́vo''' [ɐp] ([ʹajup])
|-
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person
| '''υύɾ''' [ɫɐd] ([ʹɫaɫdɐ])
| '''vv́ɾ''' [jɐd] ([ʹjajdɐ])
|-
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person
| '''υυń''' [ɫɐc] ([ɫuʹɫac])
| '''vvń''' [jɐc] ([jiʹjac])
|-
! plural
|
|
|-
! 1<sup>st</sup> person
| '''ύυo:ɾ''' [ɐptɐ] ([ʹaɫuptɐ])
| '''v́vo:ɾ''' [ɐptɐ] ([ʹajuptɐ])
|-
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person
| '''υύɾ:ɾ''' [dɐt] ([ʹɫaɫdit])
| '''vv́ɾ:ɾ''' [dɐt] ([ʹjajdit])
|-
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person
| '''υυń:ɾ''' [ɫɐctɐ] ([ɫuʹɫactɐ])
| '''vvń:ɾ''' [jɐctɐ] ([jiʹjactɐ])
|}
 
The inanimate forms also follow the same forms as the base forms, but it should be noted that a reflexive of '''ιιn''' [ʹhuhcɐ] is not used, but rather the pronoun referring to absent objects '''oon''' [ʹpupcɐ] is used instead. This gives the following forms (again these are shortened informally and note that there are no 1st or 2nd person forms):
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! inanimate reflexives
! nearby
! visible
! absent/abstract
|-
! singular
| '''ɾɾń''' [dɐc] ([tiʹdac])
| '''nnń''' [ɟɐc] ([ciʹɟac])
| '''ooó''' [bɐc] ([puʹbac])
|-
! plural
| '''ɾɾń:ɾ''' [dɐctɐ] ([tiʹdactɐ])
| '''nnń:ɾ''' [ɟɐctɐ] ([ciʹɟactɐ])
| '''ooó:ɾ''' [bɐctɐ] ([puʹbactɐ])
|}
 
We have then a sentence such as ''we are messing around'' (where ''messing around'' is reflexive using the verb for ''to play'' in Mila) being:
 
:::'''ύυo:ɾ-ʌ:ɔυc'''
:::[ɐptɐ iʹguzɐ] ([ʹaɫuptɐ iʹguzɐ])
:::I.1-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pl</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-play
 
As to be expected, if we wish to show an object then again we may place this base form pronoun into the predicate position and conjugate it correctly to agree with the subject. Notice that here verbs which are not reflexive but may have a reflexive meaning in English may not take the shortened reflexive form as just mentioned. So in order to say ''I love myself'' '''ύυo-ʌ:ωυo''', ''to love'' is not treated as a reflexive verb and so may not be shortened to *[ɐp iʹnubɐ] but will rather always be given as [ʹalup iʹnubɐ], even informally, although this the shortened pronouns are creeping into normal speech, though frowned upon by some.
 
====Empty Predicate Pronouns====
 
Empty predicate pronouns are those used when we have intransitive verbs or those used with the verb ''to be'' if these contain only a prepositional phrase. The two positions behave slightly differently as shall be explained below. As all sentences in Mila require a predicate form a pronoun is often added to sentences where one would not be required in English.
 
=====Intransitive Verbs=====
 
Intransitive verbs are those which do not require an object, such as ''to run''. Some verbs may have transitive or intransitive meanings such as ''to eat'' (both ''I am eating'' and ''I am eating a cake'' are grammatically correct). Where we have intransitive verbs we have a problem in that the predicate position must be filled, but in English there is nothing to fill it. This problem is resolved by inserting a so-called ''empty predicate pronoun''. There are three base forms which may be used for the pronoun. If the action is happening in the presence of the speaker then the form '''ɾɾɾ''' [ʹtitɐ] will be used. If the action is away from the speaker, but can be seen then '''nnn''' [ʹcicɐ] is used and if the action is occurring somewhere else then '''ooo''' [ʹpupɐ] is used. We can roughly translate these forms with ''here'', ''over there'' and ''somewhere else''. By changing the pronoun used the sentence may also be changed and this will be discussed below. First the forms of the pronouns are given below. Notice that they too are usually shortened and will only receive the long form in the most formal situations. The pronunciations of both shall be given, with the formal form given in brackets. Again the orthography does not show that the form has been shortened.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! empty pronouns
! present
! visible
! absent
|-
! 1<sup>st</sup> singular
| '''ɾ́ɾɾ''' [ɐt] ([ʹatit])
| '''ńnn''' [ɐc] ([ʹacic])
| '''óoo''' [ɐp] ([ʹapup])
|-
! 2<sup>nd</sup> singular
| '''ɾɾ́ɾ''' [tɐ] ([ʹtatɐ])
| '''nńn''' [cɐ] ([ʹcacɐ])
| '''oóo''' [pɐ] ([ʹpapɐ])
|-
! 3<sup>rd</sup> singular
| '''ɾɾɾ́''' [dɐ] ([tiʹdat])
| '''nnń''' [ɟɐ] ([ciʹɟac])
| '''ooó''' [bɐ] ([puʹbap])
|-
! 1<sup>st</sup> plural
| '''ɾ́ɾɾ:ɾ''' [ɐtɐ] ([ʹatitɐ])
| '''ńnn:ɾ''' [ɐctɐ] ([ʹacictɐ])
| '''óoo:ɾ''' [ɐptɐ] ([ʹapuptɐ])
|-
! 2<sup>nd</sup> plural
| '''ɾɾ́ɾ:ɾ''' [tɐt] ([ʹtatit])
| '''nńn:ɾ''' [cɐt] ([ʹcacit])
| '''oóo:ɾ''' [pɐt] ([ʹpapit])
|-
! 3<sup>rd</sup> plural
| '''ɾɾɾ́:ɾ''' [dɐtɐ] ([tiʹdatɐ])
| '''nnń:ɾ''' [ɟɐtɐ] ([ciʹɟactɐ])
| '''ooó:ɾ''' [bɐtɐ] ([puʹbaptɐ])
|}
 
As the pronouns refer to the speaker's relation in each case these may vary depending on whether the speaker was present or not at the time the action took place. So, although actions in the past are no longer able to be seen, if the speaker was present at the time the action took place then this will often mean that '''ɾɾɾ''' [ʹtitɐ] will be used. In practice though such a term is normally restricted to the present tense or if we are still in the place where the action took place. We therefore have the situation such that ''I am eating'' will normally be produced as '''ɾ́ɾɾ-ʌ:ɷvo''' [ɐt iʹmijbɐ] as the ''eating'' will take place where the speaker is. We may however encounter any of '''ɾ́ɾɾ-ω:ɷvo''' [ɐt inʹmijbɐ] if we are in the place the speaker ate, '''ńnn-ω:ɷvo''' [ɐc inʹmijbɐ] if the speaker can see the place they ate, and '''óoo-ω:ɷvo''' [ɐc inʹmijbɐ] if the speaker ate elsewhere.
 
Also certain verbs do not lend themselves to having tangibility or even observability, so even if the speaker is talking about themself a sentence such as ''I went red with anger'' could only be observed so would be
:::'''ʌιɔ:ω-ɾɾo:ʌ-ńnn-ω:nɾʌ:v'''
:::[ʹruhkin ʹtitpi ɐc inɟidʹrij]
:::anger-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> reason-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">abl</span> it.visible.1 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">past</span>-red-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">incep</span>
 
And ''I remember'' would neither be tangible nor necessarily observable so would be best translated as:
:::'''óoo-ʌ:oωo'''
:::[ɐp iʹbinbɐ]
::: it.absent.1 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-remember
 
Use of the ''absent'' pronoun '''ooo''' may also be used to place emphasis on the action as opposed to the person doing the action. In commands this is the form most often used, though it can be made slightly politer by using '''ɾɾɾ'''. When addressing someone the vocative form with ''':v''' [-ʹij ~ -ʹja] is used and here the only pronoun possible is '''ooo'''.
 
In practice the form using '''ooo''' is far more often used than the other forms and is considered much more neutral. '''ɾɾɾ''' would imply an active involvement of the speaker in the action and '''nnn''' does not have the level of involvement that '''ɾɾɾ''' does, but would be used as a witness statement or a report of something that someone saw. By placing the emphasis on the action '''ooo''' there is a detachment between the speaker and the action taking place.
 
General truths, such as ''happy people often laugh'' can only be introduced with '''ooo'''.
 
=====Prepositional Phrase Empty Pronouns=====
 
There is one final group of pronouns which are those where we have the verb ''to be'' with a preposition phrase. If we wish to say ''I am at home'', ''at home'' can be translated with '''ʌ:υɔυ''' [iʹɫugɫɐ] (lit. <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">loc</span>-house), but we still need here a predicate. The forms just mentioned can equally be used in this position for inanimate subjects, however if the subject is animate then a separate form must be used. The forms given above refer to the action taking place, which is why they can be inanimate, so by saying ''I am running'' we are translating ''I am running ( and doing it here)''. We cannot use this form, however with the verb ''to be'' as using '''ɾɾɾ''' in the sentence ''I am at home'' would imply that I am doing an action at home, which is not the case here. Instead we can translate a form of the noun ''υυυ'' [ʹɫuɫɐ] (so ''person'') for people and '''vvv''' [ʹjijɐ] for animals. Again these are usually shortened and the long forms are only used in the most formal settings (given below in brackets):
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! animate empty predicates
! lula
! non-lula
|-
! singular
|
|
|-
! 1<sup>st</sup> person
| '''ύυυ''' [ɐɫ] ([ʹaɫu])
| '''v́vv''' [ɐj] ([ʹajij])
|-
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person
| '''υύυ''' [ɫɐ] ([ʹɫaɫɐ])
| '''vv́v''' [jɐ] ([ʹjajɐ])
|-
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person
| '''υυύ''' [ɫɐɫ] ([ɫuʹɫaɫ])
| '''vvv́''' [jɐj] ([jiʹjaj])
|-
! plural
|
|
|-
! 1<sup>st</sup> person
| '''ύυυ:ɾ''' [ɐdɐ] ([ʹaɫudɐ])
| '''v́vv:ɾ''' [ɐjdɐ] ([ʹajijdɐ])
|-
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person
| '''υύυ:ɾ''' [ɫɐt] ([ʹɫaɫit])
| '''vv́v:ɾ''' [jɐt] ([ʹjajit])
|-
! 3<sup>rd</sup> person
| '''υυύ:ɾ''' [ɫɐdɐ] ([ɫuʹɫaɫdɐ])
| '''vvv́:ɾ''' [jɐdɐ] ([jiʹjajdɐ])
|}
 
So ''I am at home'' then becomes:
:::'''ʌ:υɔυ-ύυυ'''
:::[iʹɫugɫɐ ɐɫ]
:::<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">loc</span>-house person.1
 
and ''the dog is at home'' where ''dog'' is '''vυɾ''' [ʹjuda]:
:::'''vυɾ:n-ʌ:υɔυ-vvv́'''
:::[ʹjudic iʹɫugɫɐ jɐj]
:::dog-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">loc</span>-house animal.3
 
=====Relative Pronouns=====
 
There are a few ways that we can link sentences together by using a pronoun which refers back to either a person or action from a preceding sentence. If a subject has been referred to in one sentence and we wish to refer back to this subject again we can use the word '''υoω''' [ʹɫubnɐ] which also has the meaning ''self''. Remember that pronouns are usually dropped so this will only usually appear if it is in the predicate or a prepositional form. So to translate ''The dog is big and it is eating my meal.'' We would have:
 
:::'''vυɾ:n-nιó υυo:ω-ɷυń-ʌ:ɷvo:υ'''
:::[ʹjudic cuʹhap | ʹɫubin muʹlac iʹmijbu]
:::dog-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> big.3 | I-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> meal.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-eat-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">com</span>
 
Here we do not need to use a pronoun as the subject pronoun can be dropped. If however we said ''The dog is big and I don’t like it'' we have:
:::'''vυɾ:n-nιó ύoω-ʌ:oυo:ɔ:υ'''
:::[ʹjudic cuʹhap | ʹaɫbin iʹbubugɫɐ]
:::dog-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> big.3 | self.1 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-like-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">neg</span>-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">com</span>.
Here, '''ύoω''' refers back to the subject of the previous sentence.
 
The form with υoω is especially common in passive construction sentences and those where the sentences are linked with comitative, alternative or conditional affixes. It may only be used where the subject has been specifically named. In the sentences ''I saw the dog and it bit me'' we would have:
 
:::'''v́υɾ-ω:nnυ | υυó-ω:ɷɾɷ:ʌ:υ'''
:::[ʹajɫit inʹɟiɟu | ɫuʹɫap inʹmidmiɫɐ]
:::dog.1 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">past</span>-see | I.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">past</span>-bite-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">com</span>
and using '''υoώ''' instead of '''υυó''' would be incorrect.
 
If instead of a noun we wish to refer back to an action then we can do this with the use of the word '''coo''' [ʹsupɐ] which also has the meaning ''same''. So if we wish to say ''the dog is eating my meal and I don’t like it'' this is ambiguous in English as ''it'' may refer back to the dog or to the action of the dog eating my meal. This would however be unambiguous in Mila as the sentence:
 
:::'''vυɾ:n-υυo:ω-ɷυń-ʌ:ɷvo ύoω-ʌ:oυo:ɔ:υ'''
:::[ʹjudic ʹɫubin muʹɫac iʹmijbɐ | ʹaɫbin iʹbubugɫɐ]
:::dog-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> I-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> meal.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-eat | self.1 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-like-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">neg</span>-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">com</span>
 
refers back to the not liking the dog, whereas:
 
:::'''vυɾ:n-υυo:ω-ɷυń-ʌ:ɷvo ćoo-ʌ:oυo:ɔ:υ'''
:::[ʹjudic ʹɫubin muʹɫac iʹmijbɐ | ʹasup iʹbubugɫɐ]
:::dog-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> I-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> meal.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-eat | same.1 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-like-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">neg</span>-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">com</span>
 
refers back to the action.
 
===Adjectives===
 
===Verbs===


<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
Line 471: Line 943:


Join the Mila community at https://www.facebook.com/groups/710413115768372/
Join the Mila community at https://www.facebook.com/groups/710413115768372/
A beginner's book is available at: http://www.lulu.com/shop/gary-j-taylor-raebel/beginners-mila/paperback/product-22866476.html
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->


Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/58652"