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Mila (view source)

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|nativename = ɷʌυ
|nativename = ɷʌυ
|pronunciation = [ˈmi.lɐ]
|pronunciation = [ˈmi.lɐ]
|region = Kukca planet.
|creator = Gary Taylor-Raebel
|setting = Kukca Planet
|region = Sizmin Kuka Island.
|speakers = c3000
|speakers = c3000
|date = 2016
|date = 157 AC (After Colonisation)
|familycolor = #F2DC77
|familycolor = #F2DC77
|fam1 = Proto-Mila
|fam1 = Proto-Mila
|ancestor = Proto-Mila
|ancestor = Proto-Mila
|iso1 =
|script = Mila, Romanisation
|iso2 =
|script       = Mila, Romanisation
}}
}}


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===History===
===History===
The lula who first inhabited the planet were taught raised by scientists in isolation, a necessity as they had been genetically moderated to cope with the planets climate (which is much hotter than the home planet) and air (which is richer in oxygen than the home planet). The scientists, being from an international background, spoke the planet's lingua franca, which is itself a constructed language, based on many of the home planet's language families. The original Mila (meaning simply 'language') was therefore completely regular. In the 150 years since colonisation the original population of 56 has risen to a few thousand (they breed quickly) and the language is now the everyday mother-tongue of the speakers, a situation which has never occurred on the home planet, such that Mila on the home planet has changed little in years. As a mother-tongue, though, the language has undergone a number of changes and irregularities have crept in, most notably in the phonology, shortenings of pronouns and semantic shifts.
The lula who first inhabited the planet were raised by scientists in isolation, a necessity as they had been genetically moderated to cope with the planets climate (which is much hotter than the home planet) and air (which is richer in oxygen than the home planet). The scientists, being from an international background, spoke the planet's lingua franca, which is itself a constructed language, based on many of the home planet's language families. The original Mila (meaning simply 'language') was therefore completely regular. In the 150 years since colonisation the original population of 56 has risen to a few thousand (they breed quickly) and the language is now the everyday mother-tongue of the speakers, a situation which has never occurred on the home planet, such that Mila on the home planet has changed little in years. As a mother-tongue, though, the language has undergone a number of changes and irregularities have crept in, most notably in the phonology, shortenings of pronouns and semantic shifts.


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====Liquids and Approximants====
====Liquids and Approximants====


/r/ This is a voiced alveolar trill [r]. In initial pre-stressed position and intervocalically it usually has at least two taps in all other positions it is more commonly a voiced flap [ɾ]. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''ʌʌʌ''' /ʹrira/ [ʹrirɐ] ''noise''; '''oʌ́ω''' /ʹparna/ [ʹpaɾnɐ] ''bad''.2; '''υιʌ''' /ʹluhra/ [ʹɫuhɾɐ ~ ɫuhɾ̥ɐ] ''father''; '''υιʌ́''' /luʹhar/ [ɫuʹhaɾ] ''father''.3.
/r/ This is a voiced alveolar trill [r]. In initial pre-stressed position and intervocalically following main stress it usually has at least two taps in all other positions it is more commonly a voiced flap [ɾ]. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''ʌʌʌ''' /ʹrira/ [ʹrirɐ] ''noise''; '''oʌ́ω''' /ʹparna/ [ʹpaɾnɐ] ''bad''.2; '''υιʌ''' /ʹluhra/ [ʹɫuhɾɐ ~ ɫuhɾ̥ɐ] ''father''; '''υιʌ́''' /luʹhar/ [ɫuʹhaɾ] ''father''.3.


This trilled sound is notoriously difficult for many lula to produce and often becomes other sounds, which would usually be classed as speech defects. One very common ‘speech defect’ is to produce this sound as a ‘whistled s’, i.e. an apical retracted [s] which sounds a little like a kettle boiling. Another common pronunciation is to produce the trill as an apical voiced fricative [z̺]. The flapped [ɾ] allophone does not undergo these changes.
This trilled sound is notoriously difficult for many lula to produce and often becomes other sounds, which would usually be classed as speech defects. One very common ‘speech defect’ is to produce this sound as a ‘whistled s’, i.e. an apical retracted [s̺̱] which sounds a little like a kettle boiling. Another common pronunciation is to produce the trill as an apical voiced fricative [z̺]. The flapped [ɾ] allophone does not undergo these changes.


/l/ This is a voiced velarised alveolar lateral [ɫ]. It may appear in both onset and coda positions. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''υυυ''' /ʹlula/ [ʹɫuɫɐ] ''person''; '''υύι''' /ʹlalha/ [ʹɫaɫhɐ ~ ɫaɫ̥hɐ] ''alone''.2; '''υɔύ''' /luʹgal/ [ɫuʹgaɫ] ''house''.3.
/l/ This is a voiced velarised alveolar lateral [ɫ]. It may appear in both onset and coda positions. In the environment of an adjacent /h/ it will be slightly devoiced, though not fully so. Examples: '''υυυ''' /ʹlula/ [ʹɫuɫɐ] ''person''; '''υύι''' /ʹlalha/ [ʹɫaɫhɐ ~ ɫaɫ̥hɐ] ''alone''.2; '''υɔύ''' /luʹgal/ [ɫuʹgaɫ] ''house''.3.
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====Stress====
====Stress====


Stress is usually placed on the first syllable of the root of a word. Exceptions include where a grammatical /a/ is inserted. This will always take the stress. It usually occurs in the first syllable of the root anyway, but in agreement with the third person it will occur on the second syllable of the root. Suffixes generally do not affect stress placement, though the lative suffix ''':v''' /-ij ~ -ja/ used inflectionally will always be stressed, and the negative suffix :ɔ /-uk ~ -ka ~ -ga/ may be stressed if the negative itself is stressed.
Stress is usually placed on the first syllable of the root of a word. Exceptions include where a grammatical /a/ is inserted. This will always take the stress. It usually occurs in the first syllable of the root anyway, but in agreement with the third person it will occur on the second syllable of the root. Suffixes generally do not affect stress placement, though the lative suffix ''':v''' /-ij ~ -ja/ used inflectionally will always be stressed, and the negative suffix :ɔ /-uk ~ -ka ~ -ga/ may be stressed if the negative itself is stressed.
 
In compound nouns in most cases the stress is placed on the second element, the first element then receives secondary stress. A word such as '''ιɾυ:ω-ɾov''' ''grammatical case'' is pronounced [ˌhidɫin 'tubja]. For a number of compound nouns where the second element is very common, the first element will instead be stressed, thus '''ʌʌʌ:ω-oʌɾ''' ''acoustics'', for example, is pronounced ['ririn ˌpida] ('''oʌɾ''' being equivalent to -ology). Numbers qualifying nouns will behave like a compound noun, so will also not take the stress.


====Intonation====
====Intonation====
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The phonotactics of a word are very simple. Mila syllables may be of the form (C)V(C). Syllabification starts from the root of a word and base forms will be CVC.CV. If the grammatical /a/ is added then this will be factored into the syllabification such that we have aC.CVC, CaC.CV, CV.CaC. Prefixes are always of the form VC. If this appears directly before a consonant in a root then we have the form VC.CVC.CV, for example. If this is before the vowel /a/ or another suffix then the consonant will resyllabify as the onset of the following syllable, giving for example V.CaC.CVC. Suffixes are treated as a continuation of the syllabification process in forming the root. When two consonants are across a syllable boundary they will assimilate for voicing, such that a voiceless obstruent may not appear next to a voiced consonant (with the exception of /h/). Otherwise any combination of two consonants is possible.
The phonotactics of a word are very simple. Mila syllables may be of the form (C)V(C). Syllabification starts from the root of a word and base forms will be CVC.CV. If the grammatical /a/ is added then this will be factored into the syllabification such that we have aC.CVC, CaC.CV, CV.CaC. Prefixes are always of the form VC. If this appears directly before a consonant in a root then we have the form VC.CVC.CV, for example. If this is before the vowel /a/ or another suffix then the consonant will resyllabify as the onset of the following syllable, giving for example V.CaC.CVC. Suffixes are treated as a continuation of the syllabification process in forming the root. When two consonants are across a syllable boundary they will assimilate for voicing, such that a voiceless obstruent may not appear next to a voiced consonant (with the exception of /h/). Otherwise any combination of two consonants is possible.
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===Orthography===
===Orthography===
The orthography in Mila is an Abjad system, that is each letter represents a consonant and vowels aren’t shown, the vowels are however predictable from the consonants but a few rules are necessary. It was historically accurate when created, but later changes in the language mean that reading needs to be learnt and there is not always a one-to-one equivalence. Shortened pronouns are written in their long forms even when produced in their shortened form and irregular verbs are written as if they are regular, but need to be learnt. These are, however, the exceptions and the majority of cases can be predicted from the orthography.
The orthography in Mila is an Abjad system, that is each letter represents a consonant and vowels aren’t shown, the vowels are however predictable from the consonants but a few rules are necessary. It was historically accurate when created, but later changes in the language mean that reading needs to be learnt and there is not always a one-to-one equivalence. Shortened pronouns are written in their long forms even when produced in their shortened form and irregular verbs are written as if they are regular, but need to be learnt. These are, however, the exceptions and the majority of cases can be predicted from the orthography.


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====Liquid Elision====
====Liquid Elision====


If coda /l/ or /r/ occur after /u/ or /i/ respectively then the /l/ and /r/ will be elided. We thus have the example of the word ''language'' '''ɷʌυ''' which has the root MRL. Without elision the syllabification gives /ʹmir.la/, but the /r/ follows /a/ and is in coda position, so the pronunciation is [ʹmi.lɐ]. Similarly the word for ''four'' is '''oυɾ''' which will syllabify prior to elision as /ʹpul.da/ but with elision it surfaces as [ʹpu.dɐ].
If coda /l/ or /r/ occur after /u/ or /i/ respectively then the /l/ and /r/ will be elided. We thus have the example of the word ''language'' '''ɷʌυ''' which has the root MRL. Without elision the syllabification gives /ʹmir.la/, but the /r/ follows /a/ and is in coda position, so the pronunciation is [ʹmi.ɫɐ]. Similarly the word for ''four'' is '''oυɾ''' which will syllabify prior to elision as /ʹpul.da/ but with elision it surfaces as [ʹpu.dɐ].


====Degemination====
====Degemination====
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====Irregularities====
====Irregularities====


There are a number of words with irregular pronunciations which are not indicated in the orthography and a learner must just learn them. The word '''onυ''' can mean both ''book'' and ''ghost''. For the meaning ''book'' it is pronounced regularly as [ʹpiɟ.lɐ]. For the meaning of ''ghost'' it is pronounced irregularly as [ʹpuɟ.lɐ]. It is because of such words that /i/ and /u/ are generally accepted as separate phonemes, however the amount of such irregularities are very limited.
There are a number of words with irregular pronunciations which are not indicated in the orthography and a learner must just learn them. The word '''onυ''' can mean both ''book'' and ''ghost''. For the meaning ''book'' it is pronounced regularly as [ʹpiɟ.ɫɐ]. For the meaning of ''ghost'' it is pronounced irregularly as [ʹpuɟ.ɫɐ]. It is because of such words that /i/ and /u/ are generally accepted as separate phonemes, however the amount of such irregularities are very limited.


Verbs have often become irregular in their past or future tenses. This is also not shown in the orthography, so the verb ''to sleep'' ιυι has the present tense form as the regularly pronounced '''ʌ:ιυι''' [iʹhu.hɐ], but the irregularly pronounced past and future forms (spelt regularly) as '''ω:ιυι''' [inʹhu.hu] and '''ι:ιυι''' [uʹhu] respectively.
Verbs have often become irregular in their past or future tenses. This is also not shown in the orthography, so the verb ''to sleep'' ιυι has the present tense form as the regularly pronounced '''ʌ:ιυι''' [iʹhu.hɐ], but the irregularly pronounced past and future forms (spelt regularly) as '''ω:ιυι''' [inʹhu.hu] and '''ι:ιυι''' [uʹhu] respectively.
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The predicate may serve the purpose of a predicate noun as in:
The predicate may serve the purpose of a predicate noun as in:
:::1 ‘she is a neighbour’
:::1 ''she is a neighbour''
it may be an adjective:
it may be an adjective:
:::2 ‘you are happy’
:::2 ''you are happy''
it may also be a verb when indicating attributive verbs:
it may also be a verb when indicating attributive verbs:
:::3 ‘I don’t understand’ (with the meaning that it is beyond my understanding).
:::3 ''I don’t understand'' (with the meaning that it is beyond my understanding).


The predicate will always agree with the subject. Though a pronominal subject is not generally stated apart from when using emphasis the effect of this subject will always be present on the predicate. So in sentence 1 above ''neighbour'' will agree with the 3rd person singular, in 2 ''happy'' will agree with the 2nd person singular or plural and in 3 ''understand'' will agree with the first person singular.
The predicate will always agree with the subject. Though a pronominal subject is not generally stated apart from when using emphasis the effect of this subject will always be present on the predicate. So in sentence 1 above ''neighbour'' will agree with the 3rd person singular, in 2 ''happy'' will agree with the 2nd person singular or plural and in 3 ''understand'' will agree with the first person singular.
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Agreement is obtained with an infixed /a/ and indicated in the orthography with an acute accent above the consonant where the infix precedes.  
Agreement is obtained with an infixed /a/ and indicated in the orthography with an acute accent above the consonant where the infix precedes.  


We shall consider the word for ''happy'' '''oιn''' [ʹpuhca].  
We shall consider the word for ''happy'' '''oιn''' [ʹpuhcɐ].  


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
|-
! '''oιn''' [ʹpuhca]
! '''oιn''' [ʹpuhcɐ]
! 1<sup>st</sup> person
! 1<sup>st</sup> person
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person
! 2<sup>nd</sup> person
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! singular
! singular
| '''óιn''' [ʹaphic]
| '''óιn''' [ʹaphic]
| '''oίn''' [ʹpahca]
| '''oίn''' [ʹpahcɐ]
| '''oιń''' [puʹhac]
| '''oιń''' [puʹhac]
|-
|-
! plural
! plural
| '''óιn:ɾ''' [ʹaphicta]
| '''óιn:ɾ''' [ʹaphictɐ]
| '''oίn:ɾ''' [ʹpahcit]
| '''oίn:ɾ''' [ʹpahcit]
| '''oιń:ɾ''' [puʹhacta]
| '''oιń:ɾ''' [puʹhactɐ]
|}
|}


Note that the /a/ is inserted prior to syllabic considerations thus the 1st person has /a/ inserted before the first consonant. This will give the structure aC.CVC as outlined above. For the 2nd person we get CaC.Ca and finally for the 3rd person we get CV.CaC. The plural is indicated with a suffixed ''':ɾ''' [-it ~ -ta ~ -da].
Note that the /a/ is inserted prior to syllabic considerations thus the 1st person has /a/ inserted before the first consonant. This will give the structure aC.CVC as outlined above. For the 2nd person we get CaC.Ca and finally for the 3rd person we get CV.CaC. The plural is indicated with a suffixed ''':ɾ''' [-it ~ -tɐ ~ -dɐ].


As this is the only imperative part of speech in a sentence, translating ''you are happy'' can be expressed simply as '''oίn''' [ʹpahca] for the singular and '''oίn:ɾ''' [ʹpahcit] for the plural.
As this is the only imperative part of speech in a sentence, translating ''you are happy'' can be expressed simply as '''oίn''' [ʹpahcɐ] for the singular and '''oίn:ɾ''' [ʹpahcit] for the plural.


The three sentences above are thus 1 '''υɾʌ́''' [liʹdar], 2 '''oίn''' [ʹpahca], 3 '''ύon:ɔ''' [ʹalbicka] (in the final sentence there is a suffixed negative particle ''':ɔ''' [-uk ~ -ka ~ -ga]).
The three sentences above are thus 1 '''υɾʌ́''' [ɫiʹdaɾ], 2 '''oίn''' [ʹpahcɐ], 3 '''ύon:ɔ''' [ʹaɫbickɐ] (in the final sentence there is a suffixed negative particle ''':ɔ''' [-uk ~ -kɐ ~ -gɐ]).


Some comments should be made about the plural forms at this stage. The predicate is the only part of speech which really shows the plural nature of the subject. There are however several ways to imply a plural on either the predicate or the subject and in these cases the plural suffix ''':ɾ''' will not be added to the predicate. It is thus the case that the plural just needs to be indicated once in a sentence.
Some comments should be made about the plural forms at this stage. The predicate is the only part of speech which really shows the plural nature of the subject. There are however several ways to imply a plural on either the predicate or the subject and in these cases the plural suffix ''':ɾ''' will not be added to the predicate. It is thus the case that the plural just needs to be indicated once in a sentence.
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Although most of the following cases will be used in the subject of a sentence, they can equally be used in the predicate position. The following is a list of situations where the plural is not used:
Although most of the following cases will be used in the subject of a sentence, they can equally be used in the predicate position. The following is a list of situations where the plural is not used:


:::If the subject is given with a number, so in the sentence '''.ɤ.-υυʌ:n-oιń''' [nubma ʹluric puʹhac] ''the three men are happy'', '''oιń''' [puʹhac] ''happy'' will not take the plural as ''three'' already shows this.
:::If the subject is given with a number, so in the sentence '''.ɤ.-υυʌ:n-oιń''' [nubmɐ ʹɫuric puʹhac] ''the three men are happy'', '''oιń''' [puʹhac] ''happy'' will not take the plural as ''three'' already shows this.
:::If the subject is one of the formulaic expressions such as '''υυυ:ω-ιɾυ:n''' [lulin ʹhidlic] ''some of the people'', '''υυυ:ω-cɾυ:n''' [lulin ʹsidlic] ''most of the people'', '''υυυ:ω-oωɾ:n''' [lulin ʹpindic] ''many of the people'', '''υυυ:ω-ɔιc:n''' [lulin ʹkuhsic] ''all of the people'' where this is expressed as ''people’s some'', ''people’s most'', ''people’s many'' and ''people’s all'' respectively.
:::If the subject is one of the formulaic expressions such as '''υυυ:ω-ιɾυ:n''' [ɫuɫin ʹhidɫic] ''some of the people'', '''υυυ:ω-cɾυ:n''' [ɫuɫin ʹsidɫic] ''most of the people'', '''υυυ:ω-oωɾ:n''' [ɫuɫin ʹpindic] ''many of the people'', '''υυυ:ω-ɔιc:n''' [ɫuɫin ʹkuhsic] ''all of the people'' where this is expressed as ''people’s some'', ''people’s most'', ''people’s many'' and ''people’s all'' respectively.
:::As above when saying '''oωɾ:ɔ:ω-υυυ:n''' [pindugna ʹlulic] ''some people'', '''cɾυ:ω-υυυ:n''' [sidlin ʹlulic] ''most people'', '''ɔιc:ω-υυυ:n''' [kuhsin ʹlulic] ''all people'' etc.
:::As above when saying '''oωɾ:ɔ:ω-υυυ:n''' [pindugna ʹɫuɫic] ''some people'', '''cɾυ:ω-υυυ:n''' [sidɫin ʹɫuɫic] ''most people'', '''ɔιc:ω-υυυ:n''' [kuhsin ʹɫuɫic] ''all people'' etc.
:::With collective nouns which have the prefix '''ɾ:''' [it- ~ id-], so '''υυo:ω-ɾ:nυυ:n-nιί''' [lubin itʹculic cuʹhah] ''my eyes are blue'' would take the singular form of ''blue'' and for '''ɾ:vυɾ:n-vvv́''' [idʹjudic jiʹjaj] ''dogs are animals'' the form of ''animals'' is in the singular.
:::With collective nouns which have the prefix '''ɾ:''' [it- ~ id-], so '''υυo:ω-ɾ:nυυ:n-nιί''' [ɫubin itʹcuɫic cuʹhah] ''my eyes are blue'' would take the singular form of ''blue'' and for '''ɾ:vυɾ:n-vvv́''' [idʹjudic jiʹjaj] ''dogs are animals'' the form of ''animals'' is in the singular.


In addition to this there are a few cases where the singular would be used in English but the plural is used in Mila. These are mainly collective forms in English such as ‘furniture’ where the Mila word '''ɾɔω''' [ʹtugna] refers to an item of furniture so if we are referring to more than one item it will take the plural. Another example is ‘information’ where the Mila word '''ɾoo:ω-ʌnɷ''' [tupin ʹriɟma] refers to a single piece of information and so when talking about information about something where there are multiple pieces of information then the plural will be used.
In addition to this there are a few cases where the singular would be used in English but the plural is used in Mila. These are mainly collective forms in English such as ‘furniture’ where the Mila word '''ɾɔω''' [ʹtugnɐ] refers to an item of furniture so if we are referring to more than one item it will take the plural. Another example is ‘information’ where the Mila word '''ɾoo:ω-ʌnɷ''' [tupin ʹriɟmɐ] refers to a single piece of information and so when talking about information about something where there are multiple pieces of information then the plural will be used.


It should be noted that the plural form of the predicate refers back to the subject and does not mean that the predicate is plural. The sentence:
It should be noted that the plural form of the predicate refers back to the subject and does not mean that the predicate is plural. The sentence:


:::'''υυʌ:n-vυɾ́-ʌ:nnυ'''
:::'''υυʌ:n-vυɾ́-ʌ:nnυ'''
:::[ʹluric juʹlat iʹɟiɟla]
:::[ʹɫuric juʹɫat iʹɟiɟɫɐ]
:::man-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> dog.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-see
:::man-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> dog.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-see


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:::υυʌ:n-vυɾ́:ɾ-ʌ:nnυ  
:::υυʌ:n-vυɾ́:ɾ-ʌ:nnυ  
:::[ʹluric juʹlata iʹɟiɟla]
:::[ʹɫuric juʹɫata iʹɟiɟɫɐ]
:::man-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> dog.3-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pl</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-see
:::man-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> dog.3-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pl</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-see


although the plurality is placed on the predicate ''dog'' it refers to the subject ''man'' so this sentence can mean ''the men see the dog'' or ''the men see the dogs''. Once again to be more precise about the amount of dogs we would need to say ''many dogs'', ''the three dogs'' etc.
although the plurality is placed on the predicate ''dog'' it refers to the subject ''man'' so this sentence can mean ''the men see the dog'' or ''the men see the dogs''. Once again to be more precise about the amount of dogs we would need to say ''many dogs'', ''the three dogs'' etc.


There is a further colloquial way of expressing the plural of the predicate, which is also more common in the outlying villages than in the main town . If we are referring to humans then a plural may be formed by making the word adjectival and adding '''υυυ''' [ʹɫuɫa] (meaning person) as a plural form, so ''men'' would be '''υυʌ:ω-υυυ''' [ʹɫurin ɫuɫa], the plural for animate objects would be '''vvv''' [ʹjija] (meaning animal) so ''dogs'' would be '''vυɾ:ω-vvv''' [ʹjudin jija], with all other plurals depending on if they are near (where they add '''ɾɾɾ''' [ʹtita]), within sight (where they add '''nnn''' [ʹcica]) or absent (where they add '''ooo''' [ʹpupa]) so ''houses'' could be '''υɔυ:ω-ɾɾɾ''' [ʹɫugɫin tita], '''υɔυ:ω-nnn''' [ʹɫugɫin cica] or '''υɔυ:ω-ooo''' [ʹɫugɫin pupa] depending if the speaker is very close to the houses, it’s within sight or it’s absent. The stress in these constructions will fall on the adjectival object and not this pluralised noun, which will only receive a secondary stress.
There is a further colloquial way of expressing the plural of the predicate, which is also more common in the outlying villages than in the main town . If we are referring to humans then a plural may be formed by making the word adjectival and adding '''υυυ''' [ʹɫuɫɐ] (meaning person) as a plural form, so ''men'' would be '''υυʌ:ω-υυυ''' [ʹɫurin ɫuɫɐ], the plural for animate objects would be '''vvv''' [ʹjijɐ] (meaning animal) so ''dogs'' would be '''vυɾ:ω-vvv''' [ʹjudin jijɐ], with all other plurals depending on if they are near (where they add '''ɾɾɾ''' [ʹtitɐ]), within sight (where they add '''nnn''' [ʹcicɐ]) or absent (where they add '''ooo''' [ʹpupɐ]) so ''houses'' could be '''υɔυ:ω-ɾɾɾ''' [ʹɫugɫin titɐ], '''υɔυ:ω-nnn''' [ʹɫugɫin cicɐ] or '''υɔυ:ω-ooo''' [ʹɫugɫin pupɐ] depending if the speaker is very close to the houses, it’s within sight or it’s absent. The stress in these constructions will fall on the adjectival object and not this pluralised noun, which will only receive a secondary stress.


A sentence such as ''the men see the dogs'' may thus be produced as:
A sentence such as ''the men see the dogs'' may thus be produced as:


:::'''υυʌ:n-vυɾ:ω-vvv́:ɾ-ʌ:nnυ'''
:::'''υυʌ:n-vυɾ:ω-vvv́:ɾ-ʌ:nnυ'''
:::[ʹɫuric ʹjudin jiʹjajda iʹɟiɟla/
:::[ʹɫuric ʹjudin jiʹjajda iʹɟiɟlɐ]
:::man-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> dog-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> animal.3-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pl</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-see
:::man-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> dog-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> animal.3-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pl</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-see


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:::'''υɔυ:ω-ńnn-ʌ:nnυ'''  
:::'''υɔυ:ω-ńnn-ʌ:nnυ'''  
:::[ʹɫugɫin ʹacic iʹɟiɟɫa]
:::[ʹɫugɫin ʹacic iʹɟiɟɫɐ]
:::house-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> it.visible.1 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-see
:::house-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">adj</span> it.visible.1 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-see


These forms are usually only heard in the predicate position, but they are becoming more common in the subject position too among younger rural speakers. Within the town, though, these forms are seen as rustic and are avoided.
These forms are usually only heard in the predicate position, but they are becoming more common in the subject position too among younger rural speakers. Within the town, though, these forms are seen as rustic and are avoided.


It was mentioned that if numbers are used with the noun then the noun will not take a plural form, so '''.ɜ.-υυʌ:n-oιń''' [ɫicta ʹɫuric puʹhac] means ''the two men are happy''. If however we wish to say ''two of the men are happy'' there are special suffixes which are placed onto the nouns before other suffixes, such as the subject suffix or the predicate marker, are applied. Once again these do not take a plural marker on the predicate. This sentence becomes '''υυʌ:ω:ɜ:n-oιń''' [ʹɫurinica puʹhac]. An example in the predicate position would be '''ύυʌ:ω:ɜ-ʌ:nυυ''' [ʹaɫinic iʹɟuɫa] meaning ''I see two of the men''. If we wish to say, then, ''we see two of the men'' this is '''ύυʌ:ω:ɜ:ɾ-ʌ:nυυ''' [ʹaɫinicta iʹɟuɫa]. These special suffixes are ''':ω:ɛ''' [-inu ~ -ninu] for ''one of'', ''':ω:ɜ''' [-inic ~ -nic] for ''two of'', ''':ω:ɤ''' [-inub ~ -nub] for ''three of'', ''':ω:m''' [-inbu ~ nubu] for ''four of'' and ''':ω:ɞ''' [-inɫi ~ -nuɫi] for ''five of''. Beyond this the form would be ''six men'' and not ''six of the men'' etc.
It was mentioned that if numbers are used with the noun then the noun will not take a plural form, so '''.ɜ.-υυʌ:n-oιń''' [ɫictɐ ʹɫuric puʹhac] means ''the two men are happy''. If however we wish to say ''two of the men are happy'' there are special suffixes which are placed onto the nouns before other suffixes, such as the subject suffix or the predicate marker, are applied. Once again these do not take a plural marker on the predicate. This sentence becomes '''υυʌ:ω:ɜ:n-oιń''' [ʹɫurinicɐ puʹhac]. An example in the predicate position would be '''ύυʌ:ω:ɜ-ʌ:nυυ''' [ʹaɫinic iʹɟuɫɐ] meaning ''I see two of the men''. If we wish to say, then, ''we see two of the men'' this is '''ύυʌ:ω:ɜ:ɾ-ʌ:nυυ''' [ʹaɫinictɐ iʹɟuɫɐ]. These special suffixes are ''':ω:ɛ''' [-inu ~ -ninu] for ''one of'', ''':ω:ɜ''' [-inic ~ -nic] for ''two of'', ''':ω:ɤ''' [-inub ~ -nub] for ''three of'', ''':ω:m''' [-inbu ~ nubu] for ''four of'' and ''':ω:ɞ''' [-inɫi ~ -nuɫi] for ''five of''. Beyond this the form would be ''six men'' and not ''six of the men'' etc.


====Uses of the Predicate====
====Uses of the Predicate====
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The other main use of the predicate is to show the object of a sentence. If we wish to say ''I see the house'' then this, in the mind of Mila speakers, will be produced as ''I am the house seeing''. This figuratively makes the person and the house equal in the condition of seeing and would be expressed as:
The other main use of the predicate is to show the object of a sentence. If we wish to say ''I see the house'' then this, in the mind of Mila speakers, will be produced as ''I am the house seeing''. This figuratively makes the person and the house equal in the condition of seeing and would be expressed as:
:::'''ύɔυ-ʌ:nnυ''' ['aɫgu i'ɟiɟɫa]
:::'''ύɔυ-ʌ:nnυ''' ['aɫgu i'ɟiɟɫɐ]
where the house '''υɔυ''' is placed in the predicate position.
where the house '''υɔυ''' is placed in the predicate position.


A few verbs which do not have an object in English but can be complemented with a prepositional phrase may place this phrase in the predicate position, so a verb such as '''υιɾ''' ['ɫuhta] ''to walk'' underlyingly has the meaning ‘to walk along’ so what’s being walked along may appear in the predicate position. This could give a sentence such as:
A few verbs which do not have an object in English but can be complemented with a prepositional phrase may place this phrase in the predicate position, so a verb such as '''υιɾ''' ['ɫuhta] ''to walk'' underlyingly has the meaning ‘to walk along’ so what’s being walked along may appear in the predicate position. This could give a sentence such as:
:::'''ćcɔ:ɾ-ʌ:υιɾ''' ['asukta i'ɫuhta]
:::'''ćcɔ:ɾ-ʌ:υιɾ''' ['asuktɐ i'ɫuhtɐ]
meaning ''we are walking along(side) the river'' where ''river'' is placed in the predicate form.
meaning ''we are walking along(side) the river'' where ''river'' is placed in the predicate form.


In a very few cases the verb can either take an object or a prepositional phrase and both may potentially be placed in the predicate position. An example of this is the verb '''υʌɔ''' ['ɫiga] ''to slide'' where, as an intransitive verb, the predicate meaning is ''along'' or ''across'', so the sentence:
In a very few cases the verb can either take an object or a prepositional phrase and both may potentially be placed in the predicate position. An example of this is the verb '''υʌɔ''' ['ɫiga] ''to slide'' where, as an intransitive verb, the predicate meaning is ''along'' or ''across'', so the sentence:
:::'''ccɾ́-ω:υʌɔ''' [si'zat in'ɫiga]
:::'''ccɾ́-ω:υʌɔ''' [si'zat in'ɫigɐ]
means ''he slid along the ice''. If however we wish to say ''he slid the board across to me'' the word ''board'' will be placed in the object position, giving:
means ''he slid along the ice''. If however we wish to say ''he slid the board across to me'' the word ''board'' will be placed in the object position, giving:
:::'''υυo:v-vʌɾ́-ω:υʌɔ''' [ɫu'bij ji'rat in'ɫiga]
:::'''υυo:v-vʌɾ́-ω:υʌɔ''' [ɫu'bij ji'rat in'ɫigɐ]
Usually from context it is obvious which meaning is meant, although the second sentence above could in theory also mean ''he slid across the board towards me''.
Usually from context it is obvious which meaning is meant, although the second sentence above could in theory also mean ''he slid across the board towards me''.


If, however, we have the situation that we want to say a sentence like ''he slid the board across the table to me'' we would in theory have two predicates, but this is avoided and the object is then given as an adjective of the verb. So the sentence mentioned would be roughly translated as ''he board slid across the table to me'' giving:
If, however, we have the situation that we want to say a sentence like ''he slid the board across the table to me'' we would in theory have two predicates, but this is avoided and the object is then given as an adjective of the verb. So the sentence mentioned would be roughly translated as ''he board slid across the table to me'' giving:
:::'''υυo:v-ɔυɷ́-vʌɾ:ω-ω:υʌɔ''' [ɫu'bij ku'ɫam jidin in'ɫiga].
:::'''υυo:v-ɔυɷ́-vʌɾ:ω-ω:υʌɔ''' [ɫu'bij ku'ɫam jidin in'ɫigɐ].


One final stylistic use of the predicate is for emphasising a subject in an intransitive sentence. In a sentence such as ''the sun is shining'' we could have:
One final stylistic use of the predicate is for emphasising a subject in an intransitive sentence. In a sentence such as ''the sun is shining'' we could have:
:::ɔιɾ:n-ooó-ʌ:nnc
:::ɔιɾ:n-ooó-ʌ:nnc
:::[ʹkuhtic ba iʹɟicsa]
:::[ʹkuhtic ba iʹɟicsɐ]
:::sun-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> it.absent.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-shine
:::sun-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> it.absent.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-shine


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====Subject====
====Subject====


The subject of a sentence is indicated with the suffix ''':n''' [-ic ~ -ca ~ -ɟa]. The subject in Mila usually indicates the actor of a sentence, although when an intransitive verb is used which modifies another verb the subject of the sentence may appear in the predicate position. As such the language may be analysed as showing syntactic ergativity.
The subject of a sentence is indicated with the suffix ''':n''' [-ic ~ -cɐ ~ -ɟɐ]. The subject in Mila usually indicates the actor of a sentence, although when an intransitive verb is used which modifies another verb the subject of the sentence may appear in the predicate position. As such the language may be analysed as showing syntactic ergativity.
:::υɾn''':n'''-ɾɾɾ́-ʌ:ɷωʌ  
:::υɾn''':n'''-ɾɾɾ́-ʌ:ɷωʌ  
:::[ʹlit.c'''ic''' da iʹmin.ra]
:::[ʹɫit.c'''ic''' dɐ iʹmin.ɾɐ]
:::child-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> it.present.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-cry
:::child-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> it.present.3 <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">pres</span>-cry
:::''This child is crying.''
:::''This child is crying.''
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The locative is used to indicate position, both physical and temporal and can be translated as at, in, on, by, near etc. It is formed by the prefix '''ʌ:''' [i(r)-] placed directly on the noun it refers to. It never takes stress and so the stress will remain on the syllable it would appear on if the prefix were not present.
The locative is used to indicate position, both physical and temporal and can be translated as at, in, on, by, near etc. It is formed by the prefix '''ʌ:''' [i(r)-] placed directly on the noun it refers to. It never takes stress and so the stress will remain on the syllable it would appear on if the prefix were not present.
:::onυ:n-'''ʌ:'''ɔυɷ-nnń
:::onυ:n-'''ʌ:'''ɔυɷ-nnń
:::[ʹpiɟ.lic '''i'''ʹgu.ma ɟa]
:::[ʹpiɟ.lic '''i'''ʹgu.mɐ ɟɐ]
:::book-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">loc</span>-table it.visible.3
:::book-<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">sub</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">loc</span>-table it.visible.3
:::''The book is there on the table.''
:::''The book is there on the table.''
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====Supraessive====
====Supraessive====


The supraessive prefix '''ɔ:''' is used to indicate position above the noun it modifies. As with the locative it does not affect stress placement. So '''ɔ:ιnc''' [ukʹhicsa] '<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">spre</span>-cloud' means simply ''above the clouds''. It usually refers to position without physical contact, though occasionally it may have a similar meaning to ''on top of'' or ''at the top of''. An example of this is '''ʌ:'''ɔυn [iʹguɟa] which, by using the locative here, means ''at/on the mountain''. By using the supraessive, though, we have '''ɔ:'''ɔυn [uʹkuɟa] which would mean ''at the top of the mountain''. Another example would be '''ʌ:'''ɔυɷ [iʹguma] which can mean ''on the table'' but could equally indicate ''at'' or ''by the table'' using the locative, but '''ɔ:'''ɔυɷ [uʹkuma] takes away the ambiguity and can only mean ''on (top of) the table''.
The supraessive prefix '''ɔ:''' is used to indicate position above the noun it modifies. As with the locative it does not affect stress placement. So '''ɔ:ιnc''' [ukʹhicsɐ] '<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">spre</span>-cloud' means simply ''above the clouds''. It usually refers to position without physical contact, though occasionally it may have a similar meaning to ''on top of'' or ''at the top of''. An example of this is '''ʌ:'''ɔυn [iʹguɟɐ] which, by using the locative here, means ''at/on the mountain''. By using the supraessive, though, we have '''ɔ:'''ɔυn [uʹkuɟɐ] which would mean ''at the top of the mountain''. Another example would be '''ʌ:'''ɔυɷ [iʹgumɐ] which can mean ''on the table'' but could equally indicate ''at'' or ''by the table'' using the locative, but '''ɔ:'''ɔυɷ [uʹkumɐ] takes away the ambiguity and can only mean ''on (top of) the table''.


It can also be used for figurative purposes, so a king could be spoken about as being ‘on top of the people’ '''ɔ:υυυ''' [ugʹlula]. Some of these words have taken on derivational meanings, so the example just given '''ɔ:υυυ''' also means ''haughty'' and as such has become confused with the identical verbal prefix ɔ: (see below) which is used for iteration, such that the homonym '''ɔ:υυυ''' can also mean ''crowded''.
It can also be used for figurative purposes, so a king could be spoken about as being ‘on top of the people’ '''ɔ:υυυ''' [ugʹɫuɫɐ]. Some of these words have taken on derivational meanings, so the example just given '''ɔ:υυυ''' also means ''haughty'' and as such has become confused with the identical verbal prefix ɔ: (see below) which is used for iteration, such that the homonym '''ɔ:υυυ''' can also mean ''crowded''.


====Subessive====
====Subessive====


The subessive prefix '''o:''' is used to indicate position below or under the noun it modifies. As with all other affixes of place it does not affect the stress of the stem. '''o:ɔυɷ''' [upʹkuma] thus means ''under the table''. As with '''ɔ:''' it could have a more figurative meaning by meaning below in rank.
The subessive prefix '''o:''' is used to indicate position below or under the noun it modifies. As with all other affixes of place it does not affect the stress of the stem. '''o:ɔυɷ''' [upʹkumɐ] thus means ''under the table''. As with '''ɔ:''' it could have a more figurative meaning by meaning below in rank.


====Postessive====
====Postessive====


The postessive prefix '''ω:''' is used to indicate position behind the noun it modifies. Again it does not affect stress placement. '''ω:ɔυɷ''' [inʹguma] therefore means ''behind the table''. When describing directions it can imply ''further away than, but in the same general direction''. Saying '''ω:υɾo''' [inʹlitpa] would mean ''beyond the village''.
The postessive prefix '''ω:''' is used to indicate position behind the noun it modifies. Again it does not affect stress placement. '''ω:ɔυɷ''' [inʹgumɐ] therefore means ''behind the table''. When describing directions it can imply ''further away than, but in the same general direction''. Saying '''ω:υɾo''' [inʹɫitpɐ] would mean ''beyond the village''.


If this is placed on a temporal noun then it has the meaning ''before'', so '''ω:ɔnɾ:v''' [inʹgictij] means ''before dawn''.
If this is placed on a temporal noun then it has the meaning ''before'', so '''ω:ɔnɾ:v''' [inʹgictij] means ''before dawn''.
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====Antessive====
====Antessive====


The antessive prefix '''ι:''' is used with the opposite meaning of the postessive. It therefore has the general meaning of in front of the noun it modifies, so '''ι:ɔυɷ''' [uhʹkuma] means ''in front of the table'' and with directions '''ι:υɾo''' [uhʹlitpa] has the meaning of ''before reaching the village''.
The antessive prefix '''ι:''' is used with the opposite meaning of the postessive. It therefore has the general meaning of in front of the noun it modifies, so '''ι:ɔυɷ''' [uhʹkumɐ] means ''in front of the table'' and with directions '''ι:υɾo''' [uhʹɫitpɐ] has the meaning of ''before reaching the village''.


With temporal nouns it has the meaning ''after'' making '''ι:ɔnɾ:v''' [uhʹkictij] indicate ''after dawn''.
With temporal nouns it has the meaning ''after'' making '''ι:ɔnɾ:v''' [uhʹkictij] indicate ''after dawn''.
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====Intrative====
====Intrative====


The intrative suffix ''':cc''' indicates position amongst, between or within the noun it modifies. It is quite often substituted with just the locative, so basic '''ʌ:vvɔ''' [iʹjijga] means ''at'' or ''in the forest''. To specify more clearly the position amongst the trees we can say '''vvɔ:cc''' [ʹjijgisa]. There is no particularly great difference between the two meanings but sometimes the intrative will be used where the noun already has a prefix. So whereas '''ʌ:ɾ:ɔυn''' [iritʹkuɟa] is perfectly legitimate to mean ''in the mountains'', '''ɾ:ɔυn:cc''' [itʹkuɟisa] would much more likely be used.
The intrative suffix ''':cc''' indicates position amongst, between or within the noun it modifies. It is quite often substituted with just the locative, so basic '''ʌ:vvɔ''' [iʹjijgɐ] means ''at'' or ''in the forest''. To specify more clearly the position amongst the trees we can say '''vvɔ:cc''' [ʹjijgisɐ]. There is no particularly great difference between the two meanings but sometimes the intrative will be used where the noun already has a prefix. So whereas '''ʌ:ɾ:ɔυn''' [iɾitʹkuɟɐ] is perfectly legitimate to mean ''in the mountains'', '''ɾ:ɔυn:cc''' [itʹkuɟisɐ] would much more likely be used.


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==Example texts==
==Example texts==
==Dialectal Differences==
==Other resources==
==Other resources==
For an online dictionary see http://conworkshop.info/view_language.php?l=PML
Join the Mila community at https://www.facebook.com/groups/710413115768372/
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