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Norþimris (view source)

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|nativename = Norþimris
|nativename = Norþimris
|pronunciation = [nɔɹˈθɪmɾɪs]
|pronunciation = [nɔɹˈθɪmɾɪs]
|creator = Neil Whalley
|region = Great Britain
|region = Great Britain
|states = Norþimer
|states = Norþimer
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===Dialects===
===Dialects===
There is a great deal of dialect variation across Norþimer, but there are generally considered to be four main dialects:  
There is a great deal of dialect variation across Norþimer, but there are generally considered to be four main dialects:  
* Southern, which is the closest to a 'standard' dialect, found in ''Yorucscir''
* Southern, which is the closest to a 'standard' dialect, found in ''Yorucschir''
* Northern, extending north from ''Weer Ei'' (River Wear) to the Scottish border
* Northern, extending north from ''Weer Ey'' (River Wear) to the Scottish border
* Western, the dialect west of the moors  
* Western, the dialect west of the moors
* South-western, the dialect of the ''Þreiplands'', sometimes called ''Þreiplandris''
* South-western, the dialect of the ''Þreeplands'', sometimes called ''Þreeplandris''


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
The consonant inventory of Norþimris is very similar to that of English and has changed little since the Old English period.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 68px; "|
! style="width: 68px; "|
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|  
|  
|  
|  
| ɹ
| (ɹ)
|  
|  
| j
| j
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|
|
|}
|}
Notes:
* /ɹ/ is an allophone of /ɾ/ found before consonants.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
The Norþimris vowel system is probably best understood as consisting of 6 short vowels, 7 historically 'long' vowels (which are more commonly pronounced as diphthongs) and 4 true diphthongs.
====Short Vowels====
The short vowels are shown in the table below. They include the reduced vowel /ə/, which may be an allophonic variant of any other short vowel in an unstressed syllable.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; "|
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|-
|-
! style="" |Close
! style="" |Close
| iː
|  
|  
| uː
|  
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Near-close
! style="" |Near-close
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|-
|-
! style="" |Close-mid
! style="" |Close-mid
| eː
|  
|  
| oː
|  
|
|-
|-
! style="" |Mid
! style="" |Mid
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|-
|-
! style="" |Near-open
! style="" |Near-open
| æː
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|-
|-
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|  
|  
| ɒ
| ɒ
|}
====The 'Long' Vowels and Diphthongs====
The distribution of Norþimris long vowels and diphthongs is complicated. In general there is a tendency to pronounce historically long vowels as diphthongs in most environments.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! style="width: 100px; "|Dipthong
! style="width: 100px;" |Spellings
! style="width: 400px;" |Comments
|-
| /æː/
| ''iy''
|
|-
| /eə/
| ''ea''
|
|-
| /ei̯/
| ''ey''
|
|-
| (/i̯a/)
| ''ea''
| an allophone of /eə/ in initial position
|-
| /iə/
| ''ee, eu''
|
|-
| /ii̯/
| ''ei''
|
|-
| (/ɪu̯/)
| ''eu''
| dialectally
|-
| /oː/
| ''au, oo''
|
|-
| (/oə/)
| ''oo''
| an occasional allophone of /oː/ dialectally
|-
| /ɔu̯/
| ''ou''
|
|-
| /ʊu̯/
| ''uy''
|
|}
|}


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''a b c d ð e f g h i l m n o p r s t þ u w x y z''
''a b c d ð e f g h i l m n o p r s t þ u w x y z''


The letters ''j, q'' and ''v'' do not occur, except in unassimilated borrowings. ''k'' only appears in the digraph ''sk''.
The letters ''j, k, q'' and ''v'' do not occur, except in unassimilated borrowings. The letters ''ð'' (called ''eð'') and ''þ'' (''þorn'') are retained from the runic alphabet.


The orthography is almost entirely phonemic, except notably in the case of ''s'', the pronunciation of which is not always predictable in final position. The following table gives all the relevant values of the letters and digraphs.
The orthography is almost entirely phonemic, except notably in the case of ''s'', the pronunciation of which is not always predictable in final position. The following table gives all the relevant values of the letters and digraphs.
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|
|
|-
|-
| ''au''
| rowspan="2" | ''au''
| /oː/
| /oː/
| style="text-align:left;" | sometimes /aː/ in parts of the W
|
|-
| /a/
| style="text-align:left;" | before word-final ''h''
|-
|-
| ''b''
| ''b''
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| ''d''
| ''d''
| /d/
| /d/
|
| style="text-align:left;" | word-final ''nd'' tends to become /nt/ or /nː/ (e.g. ''Ingland'' /ɪŋlənː/)
|-
|-
| ''ð''
| ''ð''
| /ð/
| /ð/
|
|  
|-
|-
| ''e''
| ''e''
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|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''ea''
| rowspan="2" | ''ea''
| /eː/
| /eə/
| style="text-align:left;" | tending towards /eə/
| style="text-align:left;" |
|-
|-
| /ja/
| /ja/
| style="text-align:left;" | often word initially or after initial /h/, particularly in N & W (e.g. ''ean'' 'one' /jan/, ''heam'' /hjam/)
| style="text-align:left;" | often word initially or after initial /h/ (e.g. ''ean'' 'one' /jan/, ''heam'' /hjam/)
|-
|-
| ''ee''
| ''ee''
| /iː/
| /iə/
| style="text-align:left;" | often /iə/ in N & W
| style="text-align:left;" |
|-
|-
| ''ei''
| ''ei''
| /ij/
| style="text-align:left;" |
|-
| ''eu''
| /iə/
| /iə/
| style="text-align:left;" | but /iː/ in open syllables (e.g. ''sei'' 'sea'). Often /ei/ in N & W
|-
| ''eo''
| /iː/
| style="text-align:left;" | /ɪu̯/ in areas bordering Scotland
| style="text-align:left;" | /ɪu̯/ in areas bordering Scotland
|-
|-
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| style="text-align:left;" | medially and finally
| style="text-align:left;" | medially and finally
|-
|-
| ''f''
| ''ff''
| /f/
| /f/
|
|
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|
|
|-
|-
| rowspan="3" | ''h''
| rowspan="2" | ''h''
| /h/
| /h/
| style="text-align:left;" | initially
| style="text-align:left;" | initially
|-
|-
| /f/
| /f/
| style="text-align:left;" | medially and finally; tends to become /x/ in the far N
| style="text-align:left;" | finally following ''u''
|-
| Ø
| style="text-align:left;" | generally before ''-t''
|-
|-
| ''i''
| ''i''
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|
|
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''ie''
| ''ie''
| /ɪ/
| /ɪ/
| style="text-align:left;" | word-finally in unstressed syllables, notably the endings ''-ie, -lie'' (e.g. ''nouhtie'' 'poor').  
| style="text-align:left;" | word-finally in unstressed syllables, notably the endings ''-ie, -lie'' (e.g. ''nouhtie'' 'poor').  
|-
| /iː/
| style="text-align:left;" | in stressed position
|-
|-
| ''iy''
| ''iy''
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|
|
|-
|-
| ''ou''
| rowspan="2" | ''ou''
| /ɔu̯/
| /ɔu̯/
|
|
|-
| /ʊ/
| style="text-align:left;" | before word-final ''h''
|-
|-
| ''p''
| ''p''
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|-
|-
| ''sc''
| ''sc''
| /ʃ/
| /sk/
|
|
|-
|-
| ''sk''
| ''sch''
| /sk/
| /ʃ/
| style="text-align:left;" | the only permitted use of ''k'' in native words
|  
|-
|-
| ''ss''
| ''ss''
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|
|
|-
|-
| ''u''
| rowspan="2" | ''u''
| /ʊ/
| /ʊ/
|
|
|-
| /ə/
| style="text-align:left;" | in final, unstressed syllables
|-
|-
| ''uu''
| ''uu''
| /uː ~ ʊu̯/
| /ʊw/
|
|
|-
|-
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| ''z''
| ''z''
| /t͡s/
| /t͡s/
| style="text-align:left;" | used mostly in borrowed words
| style="text-align:left;" | rare, used mostly in borrowed words
|}
|}
<br>
<br>
Notes:
Notes:
* the only letter which should present any difficulty to the reader is <''s''>, the pronunciation of which is not always predictable. In this article, voiceless /s/ will be written <''ṡ''> where confusion may arise (e.g. ''huuṡ'' 'house', ''riyṡ'' 'rice').
* the pronunciation of <''s''> is not always predictable from its environment. In this article, voiceless /s/ will be written <''ṡ''> where confusion may arise (e.g. ''huyṡ'' 'house', ''riyṡ'' 'rice').


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
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====Plurals====
====Plurals====
The plural of most nouns ends in ''-s'', or ''-es'' after a sibilant (e.g. ''apels'', ''huuses'').  
The plural of most nouns ends in ''-s'', or ''-is'' after a sibilant (e.g. ''apels'', ''huysis'').  


A few nouns have a rare plural in ''-en'' or ''-er'':
A few nouns have a rare plural in ''-(e)n'' or ''-er'':
* ''een'' 'eyes', ''ousen'' 'oxen', ''sceon'' 'shoes'
* ''ein'' 'eyes', ''ousen'' 'oxen', ''sceun'' 'shoes'
* ''lamer'' 'lambs', ''caufer'' 'calves', ''childer'' 'children'
* ''lamer'' 'lambs', ''caufer'' 'calves' (sg. ''cauff''), ''souter'' 'sheep', ''childer'' 'children' (no sg.).


There is also a small number of nouns with a change of vowel in the plural:  
There is also a small number of nouns with a change of vowel in the plural:  
* ''man'' 'man' → ''men'', ''wiman'' 'woman' → ''wimen'', ''hand'' 'hand' → ''hend''
* ''man'' 'man' → ''men'', ''wiman'' 'woman' → ''wimen'', ''hand'' 'hand' → ''hend''
* ''teoþ'' 'tooth' → ''teeþ'', ''feot'' 'foot' → ''feet'', ''geoṡ'' 'goose' → ''geeṡ''
* ''teuþ'' 'tooth' → ''teiþ'', ''feut'' 'foot' → ''feit'', ''geuṡ'' 'goose' → ''geiṡ''
* ''muuṡ'' 'mouse' → ''miys'', ''cuu'' 'cow' → ''ciy''
* ''muyṡ'' 'mouse' → ''miys'', ''cuy'' 'cow' → ''ciy'', ''luyṡ'' 'louse' → ''liyṡ''.


====Genitive====
====Genitive====
The genitive has two forms:  
The genitive has two forms:  
* the '''dependent''' genitive is used directly before a noun or noun phrase and is unmarked (e.g.'' 't man huuṡ'' 'the man's house', ''his faðer sun'' 'his father's son').
* the '''dependent''' genitive is used directly before a noun or noun phrase and is unmarked (e.g.'' 't man huyṡ'' 'the man's house', ''his faðer sun'' 'his father's son').
* the '''independent''' genitive usually occurs as the complement in a copular construction and is marked with ''-s'' (''-es'' after a sibilant; e.g.'' 't huuṡ is Cetels'' 'the house is Cetel's', ''ðat 's his faðers'' 'that's his fathers').  
* the '''independent''' genitive usually occurs as the complement in a copular construction and is marked with ''-s'' (''-is'' after a sibilant; e.g.'' 't huyṡ is Cetels'' 'the house is Cetel's', ''ðat 's his faðers'' 'that's his fathers').


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives precede the noun they qualify and are generally immutable, regardless of number or case (e.g. ''a micel hund'' 'a big dog', '''t hwiyt deors'' 'the white doors').  
Adjectives precede the noun they qualify and are generally immutable, regardless of number or case (e.g. ''a micel hund'' 'a big dog', '''t hwiyt deors'' 'the white doors').  


All regular adjectives may form a comparative with the addition of ''-ar'' and a superlative with ''-ast'' (e.g. ''aud'' 'old' → ''audar, audast'', ''healie'' 'holy' → ''healiar, healiast'').
All regular adjectives may form a comparative with the addition of ''-er'' and a superlative with ''-est'' (e.g. ''aud'' 'old' → ''auder, audest'', ''healie'' 'holy' → ''healier, healiest'').


The following are compared irregularly: ''il'' 'bad' → ''wer/werṡ, werst''; ''geod'' 'good' → ''beter, best''; ''micel'' 'large' → ''mear/mea, meast''; ''liytel/liyl'' 'small' → ''leeṡ, leest''.  
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! style="width: 100px; "|
! style="width: 100px;" |Positive
! style="width: 100px;" |Comparative
! style="width: 100px;" |Superlative
|-
| bad || ''il'' || ''wer, werṡ'' || ''werst''
|-
| good || ''geud, weel'' || ''beter'' || ''best''
|-
| large || ''micel'' || ''mear, mea'' || ''meast''
|-
| small || ''litel, liyl'' || ''less'' ||'' leest''.
|-
| near || ''nar'' || ''narmer'' || ''narmest''
|}
 
The alternative endings ''-mer'' and ''-mest'' are also sometimes added colloquially to other adjectives, creating forms such as ''betermer, betermest''.
 
The comparative adjective is frequently used with ''an'' 'than' (e.g. ''Cetel 's greeter an Micel'' 'Cetel's bigger than Michael'). An equative structure can be created with the adverbs ''auṡ ... auṡ'' or ''swea ... auṡ'' and the positive adjective (e.g. ''auṡ hwiyt auṡ snea'' 'as white as snow', ''swea stil auṡ a muyṡ'' 'as quiet as mouse').


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
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|-
|-
| 3
| 3
| ''þree''
| ''þrei''
| ''þird''
| ''þird''
|-
|-
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| 100
| 100
| ''hunreþ''
| ''hunreþ''
| ''hunreþd''
| ''hunreþt''
|-
|-
| 1000
| 1000
| ''þuusan''
| ''þuysan''
| ''þuusand''
| ''þuysand''
|-
|-
| 1,000,000
| 1,000,000
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| ''ic''
| ''ic''
| ''mi''
| ''mi''
| ''mie''
| ''mei''
|-
|-
| 2sg
| 2sg
| ''ðu, -tu''
| ''ðu, -tu''
| ''ðuu''
| ''ðuy''
| ''ði''
| ''ði''
| ''ðie''
| ''ðei''
|-
|-
| 3sg m.
| 3sg m.
| ''hi''
| ''hi''
| ''hie''
| ''hei''
| colspan="2" | ''him''
| colspan="2" | ''him''
|-
|-
| 3sg f.
| 3sg f.
| ''scu''
| ''su''
| ''sceo''
| ''scheu''
| colspan="2" | ''her''
| colspan="2" | ''her''
|-
|-
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| 1pl
| 1pl
| ''wi''
| ''wi''
| ''wie''
| ''wei''
| ''us''
| ''us''
| ''uus''
| ''uys''
|-
|-
| 2pl
| 2pl
| ''yi''
| ''yi''
| ''yie''
| ''yei''
| ''yu''
| ''yu''
| ''yuu''
| ''yuy''
|-
|-
| 3pl
| 3pl
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|}
|}


Several of the personal pronouns have different stressed and unstressed forms. The stressed forms are only used in speech and writing when particular emphasis is put on the pronoun, such as when they occur independently (e.g. ''ic leof him'' ''''I''' love him', ''hwea didd ðat? Yuu'' 'who did that? You') . Elsewhere, the unstressed forms are used (e.g. ''hi wuns in Yoruc'' 'he lives in York').
Several of the personal pronouns have different stressed and unstressed forms. The stressed forms are only used in speech and writing when particular emphasis is put on the pronoun, such as when they occur independently (e.g. ''ic leuf him'' ''''I''' love him', ''hwea didd ðat? Yuy'' 'who did that? You') . Elsewhere, the unstressed forms are used (e.g. ''hi wuns in Yoruc'' 'he lives in York').


Notes:  
Notes:
* the 2nd person singular ''-tu'' is an enclitic form used with interrogative verbs (e.g. ''censtu Cetel?'' 'do you know Cetel?').
* the 2nd person singular ''-tu'' is an enclitic form used with interrogative verbs (e.g. ''censtu Cetel?'' 'do you know Cetel?').
* the 3rd person singular forms ''him, her'' and ''hit'' are pronounced without the ''h'' in unstressed position, but this is not expressed in writing.
* the 3rd person singular forms ''him, her'' and ''hit'' are pronounced without the ''h'' in unstressed position, but this is not expressed in writing.
* as in English, 'hi/hie' are used for male humans, ''scu/sceo'' for females and ''hit'' for inanimate objects.
* as in English, ''hi/hei'' are used for male humans, ''su/scheu'' for females and ''hit'' for inanimate objects.
* Norþimris maintains a T/V distinction, in which 2nd person plural ''yie'' etc. can be used as formal 'you' when addressing a single person. Its use is generally more restricted than in many European languages, only used in particularly formal situations and not necessarily expected when speaking to elders or strangers.
* Norþimris maintains a T/V distinction, in which 2nd person plural ''yei'' etc. can be used as formal 'you' when addressing a single person. Its use is generally more restricted than in many European languages, only used in particularly formal situations and not necessarily expected when speaking to elders or strangers.
* there is an informal use of ''us/uus'' in place of ''mi/mie'' (e.g. ''gie us hit'' 'give me it').
* there is an informal use of ''us/uus'' in place of ''mi/mie'' (e.g. ''gie us hit'' 'give me it').


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|-
|-
| 1pl
| 1pl
| ''uur''
| ''uyr''
| ''uurs''
| ''uyrs''
|-  
|-  
| 2pl
| 2pl
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There is no independent form for the 3rd person neuter.
There is no independent form for the 3rd person neuter.


'''Reflexive''' pronouns are formed with ''-(s)seln'', irregularly pronounced /sɛl/ or /sɛn/ according to dialect, which is added to the object pronouns (e.g. ''misseln'' 'myself', ''herṡeln'' 'herself'). These pronouns are more emphatic than their English counterparts and the object pronouns are preferred when the sense of reflexiveness is already implied (e.g. ''i sau mi i 't scewer'' 'I saw myself in the mirror').  
'''Reflexive''' pronouns are formed with ''-(s)seln'', irregularly pronounced /sɛl/ or /sɛn/ according to dialect, which is added to the object pronouns (e.g. ''misseln'' 'myself', ''herṡeln'' 'herself'). These pronouns are more emphatic than their English counterparts and the object pronouns are preferred when the sense of reflexiveness is already implied (e.g. ''i sau mi in 't schewer'' 'I saw myself in the mirror').  


====Demonstrative====
====Demonstrative====
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* pronouns: ''hwea'' 'who', ''hwat'' 'what', ''hwilc'' 'which', referring to things already mentioned or implied, ''hweðer'' 'which of two';
* pronouns: ''hwea'' 'who', ''hwat'' 'what', ''hwilc'' 'which', referring to things already mentioned or implied, ''hweðer'' 'which of two';
* adjectives: ''hwilc'' 'what, which', ''hweaṡ'' 'whose';
* adjectives: ''hwilc'' 'what, which', ''hweaṡ'' 'whose';
* adverbs: ''hwiy'' 'why', ''huu'' 'how', ''hwear'' 'where', ''hwan'' 'when'.
* adverbs: ''hwiy'' 'why', ''huy'' 'how', ''hwear'' 'where', ''hwan'' 'when'.


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
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'''''Present Tense'''''
'''''Present Tense'''''


All regular verbs follow the same pattern in the present tense, given below with ''leof'' 'love':
All regular verbs follow the same pattern in the present tense, given below with ''leuf'' 'love':


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
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|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| ''leof''
| ''leuf''
| rowspan="3" | ''leof''
| rowspan="3" | ''leuf''
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
| rowspan="2" | ''leofs''
| rowspan="2" | ''leufs''
|-
|-
! 3
! 3
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'''''Past Tense'''''
'''''Past Tense'''''


In the past tense, regular verbs may be divided into strong and weak conjugations, the former conjugating by a vowel change, the latter by the addition of a suffix. There are no distinctions of person in the past tense.  
In the past tense, regular verbs may be divided into '''strong''' and '''weak''' conjugations, the former conjugating by a vowel change, the latter by the addition of a suffix. There are no distinctions of person in the past tense.  


Following the typical Germanic classification, there are 7 classes of strong verb, each with different changes in the past tense and the past participle:
Following the typical Germanic classification, there are 7 classes of strong verb, each with different changes in the past tense and the past participle:
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|-
|-
| 2
| 2
| ''beed''
| ''beid''
| ''bead''
| ''bead''
| ''boden''
| ''boden''
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|-
|-
| 4
| 4
| ''beir''
| ''beer''
| ''bar''
| ''bar''
| ''boren''
| ''boren''
|-
|-
| 5
| 5
| ''eit''
| ''eet''
| ''eat''
| ''eat''
| ''eten''
| ''eten''
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| 6
| 6
| ''fear''
| ''fear''
| ''feor''
| ''feur''
| ''faren''
| ''faren''
|-
|-
| rowspan="3" | 7
| rowspan="3" | 7
| ''mau''
| ''nau''
| ''mew''
| ''niw''
| ''maun''
| ''naun''
|-
|-
| ''grou''
| ''grou''
| ''grew''
| ''griw''
| ''groun''
| ''groun''
|-
|-
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Weak verbs form their past tense with a dental suffix, the form of which depends on the stem:
Weak verbs form their past tense with a dental suffix, the form of which depends on the stem:
* stems ending in ''-l, -m, -n, -nd'' or a voiceless consonant take ''-t'' (e.g. ''smelt'' 'smelled', ''fiyct'' 'fidgetted', ''lamt'' 'beat');
* stems ending in ''-l, -m, -n, -nd'' or a voiceless consonant take ''-t'' (e.g. ''smelt'' 'smelled', ''fiyct'' 'fidgetted', ''lamt'' 'beat');
* stems ending in ''-d'' or ''-t'' take ''-it'' (e.g. ''liltit'' 'hummed', ''bratit'' 'curdled'', ''breidit'' 'stretched');
* stems ending in ''-d'' or ''-t'' take ''-it'' (e.g. ''liltit'' 'hummed', ''bratit'' 'curdled'', ''breedit'' 'stretched');
* other stems take ''-d'' (e.g. ''bleðerd'' 'talked loudly', ''ligd'' 'lay', ''hiysd'' 'hoisted').
* other stems take ''-d'' (e.g. ''bleðerd'' 'talked loudly', ''ligd'' 'lay', ''hiysd'' 'hoisted').


A number of verbs in <''ee''> may undergo shortening in the past (e.g. ''bleed'' → ''bledd'', ''meet'' → ''mett'', ''sleep'' → ''slept/sleept''). A number of other verbs have a past tense ending in ''-ht'' (e.g. ''seec'' → ''souht'', ''wurc'' → ''wrouht'', ''lach'' 'catch' → ''lauht'').  
A number of verbs in <''ei''> may undergo shortening in the past. Those in ''eid, eit'' take an additional ''-d'' or ''-t'' (e.g. ''bleid'' → ''bledd'', ''meit'' → ''mett'', ''sleip'' → ''slept/sleept''). The following weak verbs are irregular in the past: ''teech'' 'show, explain' → ''taut'', ''seic'' 'seek' → ''sout'', ''þenc'' 'think' → ''þout'', ''wurc'' 'work' → ''wrout'', ''reec'' 'reach' → ''rout'', ''lach'' 'catch' → ''laut'', ''rec'' 'pay attention to' → ''rout'', ''dou'' 'be of use' → ''dout'', ''reic'' 'smell' → 'reyt''.  


'''''Imperative'''''
'''''Imperative'''''


The imperative of regular verbs is identical to the stem (e.g. ''leof mi'' 'love me', ''eit ðiy meit'' 'eat your food').  
The imperative of regular verbs is identical to the stem (e.g. ''leuf mi'' 'love me', ''eet ðiy meet'' 'eat your food').  


'''''Participles'''''
'''''Participles'''''


The '''present participle''' of all verbs is formed with ''-and'' (e.g. ''leofand'' 'loving', ''singand'' 'singing').  
The '''present participle''' of all verbs is formed with ''-and'' (e.g. ''leufand'' 'loving', ''singand'' 'singing').  


The '''past participle''' of most weak verbs is identical to the past tense form (e.g. ''leofd'' 'loved', ''ligd'' 'layed'). The strong verbs form a past participle with ''-(e)n'' and a change of vowel, as shown in the table above but a number of weak verbs ending in ''-d, -t'' also form their past participle in ''-en'' (e.g. ''breiden'' 'stretched', ''leaden'' 'loaded').
The '''past participle''' of most weak verbs is identical to the past tense form (e.g. ''leufd'' 'loved', ''ligd'' 'laid'). The strong verbs form a past participle with ''-(e)n'' and a change of vowel, as shown in the table above but a number of weak verbs ending in ''-d, -t'' also form their past participle in ''-en'' (e.g. ''breeden'' 'stretched', ''leaden'' 'loaded').


====Irregular Verbs====
====Irregular Verbs====
A number of irregular verbs occur in Norþimris, the most important of which is ''bie'' 'be':
A number of irregular verbs occur in Norþimris, the most important of which is ''bei'' 'be':


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
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| ''is, 's''
| ''is, 's''
| ''ar, 'r''
| ''ar, 'r''
| ''bieand''
| ''beiand''
|-
|-
! Past
! Past
| colspan="2" | ''wer''
| colspan="2" | ''wer''
| ''bien''
| ''bein''
|-
|-
! Imperative
! Imperative
| colspan="2" | ''bie''
| colspan="2" | ''bei''
|
|
|}
|}
Line 766: Line 852:
|-
|-
| do
| do
| ''deo''
| ''deu''
| ''didd''
| ''didd''
| ''deond''
| ''deund''
| ''deon''
| ''deun''
|-
|-
| have
| have
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|-
|-
| give
| give
| ''gie''
| ''gei''
| ''gaf''
| ''gaf''
| ''giend''
| ''geind''
| ''gien''
| ''gein''
|-
|-
| make
| make
Line 818: Line 904:
|-
|-
! Present Continuous
! Present Continuous
| present of ''bie'' + present participle
| present of ''bei'' + present participle
| ''i 's singand''
| ''i 's singand''
| I am singing
| I am singing
|-
|-
! Past Continuous
! Past Continuous
| past of ''bie'' + present participle
| past of ''bei'' + present participle
| ''i wer singand''
| ''i wer singand''
| I was singing
| I was singing
Line 832: Line 918:
| I have sung
| I have sung
|-
|-
| present of ''bie'' + past participle
| present of ''bei'' + past participle
| ''i 's faun''  
| ''i 's faun''  
| I have fallen
| I have fallen
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| I had sung
| I had sung
|-
|-
| past of ''bie'' + past participle
| past of ''bei'' + past participle
| ''i wer faun''
| ''i wer faun''
| I had fallen
| I had fallen
Line 851: Line 937:
|}
|}


In the perfect and pluperfect, ''bie'' is used with unaccusative verbs, i.e. verbs in which the subject is not the agent but the patient of the verb (e.g.'' 't snea 's mouten'' 'the snow has melted').
In the perfect and pluperfect, ''bei'' is used with unaccusative verbs, i.e. verbs in which the subject is not the agent but the patient of the verb (e.g.'' 't snea 's mouten'' 'the snow has melted').


===Derivation===
===Derivation===
====Prefixes====
====Prefixes====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:left;"
! style="width: 100px; "| Prefix
! style="width: 300px; "| Use
! style="width: 400px; "| Example
|-
| ''au-''
| all-, pan-, omni-
| ''augeud'' 'omnibenevolent'
|-
| ''be-''
| makes intrans. verbs trans.
| ''beþink'' 'consider'
|-
| ''ean-''
| one, mono-, uni-, sole, only
| ''eanreed'' 'unanimous, resolute'
|-
| ''ed-''
| re-, again,
| ''edgrou'' 'regrow'
|-
| ''eer-''
| early, ancient, primary
| ''eerdey'' 'ancient times'
|-
| ''em-''
| even, equal, co-
| ''emlang'' 'of equal length'
|-
| ''feur-''
| fore-, before, pro-, pre-
| ''feurgang'' 'precede'
|-
| ''forþ-, for-''
| forward, pro-
| ''forgang'' 'proceed, progress'
|-
| ''heed-''
| head, chief, main
| ''heedcirc'' 'cathedral'
|-
| ''hey-''
| high, arch-, main
| ''heystreet'' 'highstreet, main road'
|-
| ''lees-''
| false, pseudo-
| ''leesneam'' 'pseudonym'
|-
| ''miṡ-''
| bad, wrong, fault
| ''misdeu'' 'do wrongly'
|-
| ''un-''
| un-, in-
| ''uncuyþ'' 'unknown, strange'
|}
====Suffixes====
====Suffixes====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:left;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:left;"
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| ''-ffaud''
| ''-ffaud''
| multiplicative
| multiplicative
| ''þreeffaud'' 'threefold', ''menieffaud'' 'numerous'
| ''þreiffaud'' 'threefold', ''meniffaud'' 'numerous'
|-
|-
| ''-ffuu''
| ''-ffuy''
| full of
| full of
| ''sacffuu'' 'quarrelsome', ''earffuu'' 'compassionate'
| ''sacffuy'' 'quarrelsome', ''earffuy'' 'compassionate'
|-
|-
| ''-ie''
| ''-ie''
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| ''-iṡ''
| ''-iṡ''
| of, pertaining to (particularly with countries etc.)
| of, pertaining to (particularly with countries etc.)
| ''Skotis'' 'Scottish', ''foucis'' 'popular'
| ''Scotis'' 'Scottish', ''foucis'' 'popular'
|-
|-
| ''-leṡ''
| ''-leṡ''
| deprivative
| deprivative
| ''neamleṡ'' 'nameless', ''freendleṡ'' 'friendless'
| ''neamleṡ'' 'nameless', ''frendleṡ'' 'friendless'
|-
|-
| ''-lie''
| ''-lie''
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| ''-ṡum''
| ''-ṡum''
| characterised by, having; -able
| characterised by, having; -able
| ''angṡum'' 'irritating', ''leofṡum'' 'lovable'
| ''angṡum'' 'irritating', ''leufṡum'' 'lovable'
|-
|-
| ''-wiyṡ''
| ''-wiyṡ''
| like in manner
| like in manner
| ''reehtwiyṡ'' 'just', ''needwiyṡ'' 'necessary'
| ''reitwiyṡ'' 'just', ''neidwiyṡ'' 'necessary'
|-
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center" | '''Nouns'''
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center" | '''Nouns'''
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| ''ciningdem'' 'kingdom' <br> ''wisdem'' 'wisdom'
| ''ciningdem'' 'kingdom' <br> ''wisdem'' 'wisdom'
|-
|-
| ''-en''
| ''-en''  
| feminine
| feminine
| ''giden'' 'goddess', ''fixen'' 'vixen'
| ''giden'' 'goddess', ''fixen'' 'vixen'
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| ''-er''
| ''-er''
| i. male agent <br> ii. instrument <br> iii. inhabitant of
| i. male agent <br> ii. instrument <br> iii. inhabitant of
| ''leofer'' 'lover' <br> ''scewer'' 'mirror' <br> ''Yorucer'' 'inhabitant of York'
| ''leufer'' 'lover' <br> ''scewer'' 'mirror' <br> ''Yorucer'' 'inhabitant of York'
|-
|-
| ''-ffuu''
| ''-ffuy''
| measurement of
| measurement of
| ''handfuu'' 'handful'
| ''handffuy'' 'handful'
|-
|-
| ''-head''
| ''-head''
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| ''-man''
| ''-man''
| agent, person
| agent, person
| ''freeman'', ''pleohman'' 'ploughman'
| ''freeman'', ''pleuman'' 'ploughman'
|-
|-
| ''-neṡ''
| ''-neṡ''
| abstract state, quality
| abstract state, quality
| ''geodneṡ'' 'goodness', ''micelneṡ'' 'largeness, abundance'
| ''geudneṡ'' 'goodness', ''micelneṡ'' 'largeness, abundance'
|-
|-
| ''-reden''
| ''-reden''
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| ''cinric'' 'kingdom', ''biscopric'' 'bishopric'
| ''cinric'' 'kingdom', ''biscopric'' 'bishopric'
|-
|-
| ''-scip''
| ''-schip''
| condition, state
| condition, state
| ''manscip'' 'humanity'
| ''manschip'' 'humanity'
|-
|-
| ''-ster''
| ''-ster''
| female agent
| female agent
| ''spinster'' 'spinner'
| ''spinster'' 'spinner'
|-
| ''-ṡum''
| a group of
| ''sexṡum 'group of six'
|-
| ''-uc''
| diminutive
| ''paduc'' 'toad', ''hilluc'' 'hillock'
|-
| ''-wiyff''
| female agent, woman
| ''huyṡwiyff'' 'housewife'
|-
| colspan="3" | '''Verbs'''
|-
| ''-el''
| frequentative
| ''hancel'' 'tangle'
|-
| ''-en''
| causative, to make or become
| ''hwiyten'' 'make white'
|}
|}


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===Syntax===
===Syntax===
The basic word order of Norþimris is Subject-Verb-Object:
The basic word order of Norþimris is Subject-Verb-Object:
* ''i leof ði'' 'I love you'
* ''i leuf ði'' 'I love you'
* ''Cetel sang 't sang'' 'Cetel sang the song''
* ''Cetel sang 't sang'' 'Cetel sang the song''
* ''Maria leirs Frencis'' 'Maria teaches French'
* ''Maria leers Frencis'' 'Maria teaches French'


Unlike some other Germanic languages, Norþimris prefers to keep auxiliary and lexical verbs together:
Unlike some other Germanic languages, Norþimris prefers to keep auxiliary and lexical verbs together:
Line 983: Line 1,149:


A direct object follows an indirect object, unless both are personal pronouns, in which case the direct object comes first:
A direct object follows an indirect object, unless both are personal pronouns, in which case the direct object comes first:
* ''hi gaf Askil 't beoc'' 'he gave Askil the book'
* ''hi gaf Ascil 't beuc'' 'he gave Askil the book'
* ''hi gaf hit him'' 'he gave it to him'
* ''hi gaf hit him'' 'he gave it to him'


Adverbial expressions are not in a fixed position and generally come at the beginning or end of the sentence:
Adverbial expressions are not in a fixed position and generally come at the beginning or end of the sentence:
* ''yestren, gangd i til 't seekhuuṡ'' 'yesterday, I went to the hospital'
* ''yestren, gangd i til 't seichuyṡ'' 'yesterday, I went to the hospital'
* ''i gangd til 't seekhuuṡ yestren'' 'I went to the hospital yesterday'
* ''i gangd til 't seichuyṡ yestren'' 'I went to the hospital yesterday'


Adverbs of manner are placed close to the words to which they relate:
Adverbs of manner are placed close to the words to which they relate:
* ''scu leyct wel 't geamen / scu leyct 't geamen wel'' 'she played the game well'
* ''su leyct wel 't geamen / su leyct 't geamen wel'' 'she played the game well'
* ''wi ran snel heam / wi ran heam snel'' 'we ran home fast'
* ''wi ran snel heam / wi ran heam snel'' 'we ran home fast'


When an adverbial or other element is placed before the verb, the subject is moved to come after the auxiliary verb:
When an adverbial or other element is placed before the verb, the subject is moved to come after the auxiliary verb:
* ''in a circ wer ðey wedit'' 'in a church they were married'
* ''in a circ wer ðey wedit'' 'in a church they were married'
* ''tomorn, sal i gang til 't skeol'' 'tomorrow I will go to school'
* ''tomorn, sal i gang til 't sceul'' 'tomorrow I will go to school'


The relative pronoun is ''at'':
The relative pronoun is ''at'':
*'' 't wiyff at i leof'' 'the woman who I love'
*'' 't wiyff at i leuf'' 'the woman who I love'
* ''a barn at cens au'' 'a child that knows everything'
* ''a barn at cens au'' 'a child that knows everything'


==Sample Texts==
==Sample Texts==


===The Lord's Prayer===
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! style="width: 500px;" | Norþimris !! style="width: 500px;" | English
! style="width: 500px;" | Norþimris !! style="width: 500px;" | English
|-
|-
| || 1 And the whole earth was of one language, and of one speech. <br> 2 And it came to pass, as they journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there. <br> 3 And they said one to another, Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly. And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for morter. <br> 4 And they said, Go to, let us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto Heaven; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth. <br> 5 And the <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Lord</span> came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded. <br> 6 And the <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Lord</span> said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do: and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do. <br> 7 Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech. <br> 8 So the <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Lord</span> scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth: and they left off to build the city. <br> 9 Therefore is the name of it called Babel; because the <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Lord</span> did there confound the language of all the earth: and from thence did the <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Lord</span> scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth.
| '''Þt Dreet Beid''' <br> Uur Faðer at is in hefen <br> Halud siy ðiy neam <br> Ðiy cinric becum <br> Ðiy wil wurð deon <br> On erd auṡ in hefen <br> Gie uss uur deylie leaff todey <br> An fergie uss uur scilds <br> Auṡ wie fergie uur scildiers <br> Leid not uss til costing <br> Auh free uss frea il <br> Þiyn is 't cinric an 't meyn an 't wuuder, for-ea <br> Amen
| '''The Lord's Prayer''' <br> Our father who is in heaven <br> Hallowed be thy name <br> Thy kingdom come <br> Thy will be done <br> On earth as it is in heaven <br> Give us this day our daily bread <br> And forgive us our sins <br> As we forgive those who sin against us <br> Lead us not into temptation <br> But deliver us from evil <br> Thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory, forever <br> Amen
|}
 
===The Night's Watch Pledge===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width: 500px;" | Norþimris !! style="width: 500px;" | English
|-
| ''''''T Neit Ward Eaþ'''''<br /> ''Neit gaðers an nuu agins miy ward.''<br /> ''Hit sal not end oð miy deeþ.''<br /> ''Ic sal tac nea wiyff, haud nea lands, faðer nea barns.''<br /> ''Ic sal beer nea bey an adel nea reuþ.''<br /> ''Ic sal leef an dey at miy stau.''<br /> ''Ic is 't sord in 't mirc. Ic is 't weacer on 't waus.''<br /> ''Ic is 't scheild at wards 't riycs o men.''<br /> ''Ic wed miy liyff an miyn ear til 't Neit Ward, þruh ðiss neit an ilc neit heðen.''
| '''The Night's Watch Pledge'''<br /> Night gathers, and now my watch begins.<br /> It shall not end until my death.<br /> I shall take no wife, hold no lands, father no children.<br /> I shall wear no crowns and win no glory.<br /> I shall live and die at my post.<br /> I am the sword in the darkness. I am the watcher on the walls.<br /> I am the shield that guards the realms of men.<br /> I pledge my life and honour to the Night's Watch, for this night and all the nights to come.<br />
|}
 
===Useful Phrases===
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width: 300px;" | English !! style="width: 300px;" | Norþimris
|-
! colspan="2" | Greetings ~ ''Heylsings''
|-
| Welcome
| ''Wilcum''
|-
| Hello
| ''Halo <br> Hey''
|-
| Good morning
| ''Geud morn''
|-
| Good afternoon
| ''Geud ourneun''
|-
| Good evening
| ''Geud ein''
|-
| Good night
| ''Geud neit''
|-
| Goodbye
| ''Geud dey'' (fml) <br> ''Fearwel'' (fml) <br> ''Siðie'' (inf)
|-
| How are you?
| ''Huy 'stu?'' (inf) <br> ''Aureit?'' (inf) <br> ''Huy 'r yi?'' (fml)
|-
| Fine thanks, and you?
| ''Wel, þank yu, an yei?'' (fml) <br> ''Aureit''
|-
| What's your name?
| ''Hwat heatstu?'' <br> ''Hwat heat yi?'' (fml)
|-
| My name is Ascil
| ''I heat Ascil''
|-
| Where are you from?
| ''Hwear 'stu frea?'' (inf) <br> ''Hwear ar yi frea?''
|-
| I'm from Durham
| ''I 's frea Dunhoum''
|-
! colspan="2" | The Basics ~ '''T Stounlies''
|-
| Yes
| ''Ey, aie'' <br> ''Yea''
|-
| No
| ''Ney'' <br> ''Nea''
|-
| Please
| ''Gin yi wil''
|-
| Thank you
| ''Þank yu'' (fml) <br> ''Ta'' (inf) <br> ''Þanks'' <br> ''Feel þanks'' 'many thanks'
|-
| You're welcome
| ''Wilcum''
|-
| Sorry
| ''Searie''
|-
| Excuse me
| ''Ferleit mei''
|-
! colspan="2" | Et cetera ~ ''An Swea Forþ''
|-
| Good luck
| ''Hap til ði'' (inf) <br> ''Hap til yu''
|-
| Cheers!
| ''Washeyl''
|-
| Bon Appetit!
| ''Meis yu wel''
|-
| Bon voyage!
| ''Fearwel''
|-
| I love you
| ''I leuf ði''
|-
| Get well soon
| ''Sceut betering''
|-
| Happy Birthday
| ''Eedie Birddey''
|-
| Merry Christmas
| ''Glad Yuyl''
|-
| Happy New Year
| ''Eedie Niw Yeer''
|}
 
==Vocabulary==
[[Norþimris/Vocabulary|Vocabulary Page]]
 
==Personal Names==
Personal names are generally of Germanic origin, inherited from Old English and Old Norse, or have been borrowed at various periods from the Christian tradition.
 
===Masculine Names===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width: 150px;" | Norþimris Name !! style="width: 150px;" |  English Equivalent !! style="width: 200px;" |  Alternate forms !! style="width: 250px;" | Notes
|-
| ''Aleff'' || Olaf || ||
|-
| ''Ander'' || Andrew || ''Andreas'' (Bib.), ''Anda'' ||
|-
| ''Arcel'' || || ||
|-
| ''Arnuyff'' || || ||
|-
| ''Ascel'' || || ||
|-
| ''Aumund'' || || ||
|-
| ''Becan'' || || ||
|-
| ''Cuþbret'' || Cuthbert || ''Cubret'', ''Cuda'' ||
|-
| ''Douffin'' || ''Dolfin'' || ||
|-
| ''Eyner'' || || ||
|-
| ''Eyric'' || ''Eric'' || ||
|-
| ''Fleuc'' || || ||
|-
| ''Gamel'' || || ||
|-
| ''Godfriþ'' || Godfrey, Geoffrey || ||
|-
| ''Gospatric'' || Gospatrick || ||
|-
| ''Haudan'' || ''Halfdan'' || ''Haufdan'' ||
|-
| ''Maþe'' || Matthew || ''Mateus'' (Bib.), ''Mata'' ||
|-
| ''Oswaud'' || ''Oswald'' || ||
|-
| ''Peeter'' || Peter || ''Petrus'' (Bib.), ''Peet'' ||
|-
| ''Rafen'' || Raven || ||
|-
| ''Rancel'' || || ||
|-
| ''Roscel'' || || ||
|-
| ''Rouff'' || Rolf, Ralph || ||
|-
| ''Yacob'' || James, Jacob || ''Yacobus'' (Bib.), ''Yaca'' ||
|-
| ''Yon'' || John || ''Yohanes'' (Bib.), ''Yona'' ||
|-
| ''Zacarie'' || Zachary || ''Zacarias'' (Bib.), ''Zaca'' ||
|}
|}


[[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A posteriori]] [[Category:Germanic languages]] [[Category:Languages]] [[Category:West Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:A posteriori]] [[Category:Germanic languages]] [[Category:Languages]] [[Category:West Germanic languages]]
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