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[[Category: Languages]] | |||
[[Category: Conlangs]] | |||
[[Category: Artlangs]] | |||
[[Category: A posteriori]] | |||
[[Category: Indo-European languages]] | |||
[[Category: Germanic languages]] | [[Category: Germanic languages]] | ||
Northeadish is a Germanic language which, while similar to [[ | {{Bpnjohnson.info|Northeadish|Druðþþᵫ̄ðeſc (Druþýðesk)|drʊˈθyːðɛsk|2000|Europe, vaguely|Indo-European|Indo-European|Germanic|South Germanic||||||nthd}} | ||
Northeadish is a Germanic language which, while similar to [[w:North_Germanic_languages|North]] and [[w:West_Germanic_languages|West Germanic]] languages due to many areal similarities, does not belong to either of these branches. The name “Northeadish” is a compound of ‘north’ and ‘thead’ (an ancient word referring to a folk or people). A late sound change ([[metathesis]]) in the language caused the word ''*nurþ'' ‘north’ to become ''*nruþ'', which, being difficult to pronounce, corrected itself through a process of stop-insertion (becoming ''*n̩druþ''). Later still, the nasal component of word-initial pre-nasalized stops (all of which occur only because of this process) were deleted, leaving present-day ''druðþ''. A similar process occurs with other Germanic words such as ‘morning’ (''*murganaz'' → ''mrugan'' → ''m̩brugan'' → ''brugɴ''). | |||
== Writing Systems == | == Writing Systems == | ||
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====Morphographemes: Scribal Shorthand==== | ====Morphographemes: Scribal Shorthand==== | ||
In addition to the common abbreviations above, some texts use a sort of “scribal shorthand” which takes the place of most common inflections of both nouns and verbs, as well as adjectives (if they are inflected at all). Most commonly, this type of shorthand replaces pronouns with a single-character signifier, surrounded by periods, appended to the front of their accompanying verb. Inflection of the verb is thereby also elided. In cases where i-umlaut occurs in the paradigm (usually in the second and third person singular), the vowel may optionally change, or a raised comma may be added to the vowel. | In addition to the common abbreviations above, some texts use a sort of “scribal shorthand” which takes the place of most common inflections of both nouns and verbs, as well as adjectives (if they are inflected at all). Most commonly, this type of shorthand replaces pronouns with a single-character signifier, surrounded by periods, appended to the front of their accompanying verb. Inflection of the verb is thereby also elided. In cases where i-umlaut occurs in the paradigm (usually in the second and third person singular), the vowel may optionally change, or a raised comma may be added to the vowel. | ||
([[File:Northeadish-dot.gif|.]][[File:Northeadish-g.gif|.]][[File:Northeadish-g.gif|.]][[File:Northeadish-dot.gif|.]] = gaŋɴ) | |||
Normally only the root of the verb is used, but in some cases, there are also further abbreviations for common verbs. | Normally only the root of the verb is used, but in some cases, there are also further abbreviations for common verbs. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| 3pl || ſī<sup>i</sup> || hīr || hīm || ſīn || ''they, their, (to) them, them'' | | 3pl || ſī<sup>i</sup> || hīr || hīm || ſīn || ''they, their, (to) them, them'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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===Relative Pronouns=== | ===Relative Pronouns=== | ||
What follows here are the “true” relative pronouns, though several words may take over this function, such as those mentioned in the | What follows here are the “true” relative pronouns, though several words may take over this function, such as those mentioned in the Indefinite Pronouns below (''qer'', ''qīr'', and ''qet''), the word ''ſᴍ''. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| 3pl || ſīr || ſīm, ſīſc<sup>iv</sup> || ſec, ſeſc<sup>iv</sup> | | 3pl || ſīr || ſīm, ſīſc<sup>iv</sup> || ſec, ſeſc<sup>iv</sup> | ||
|- | |||
|} | |||
===Other Pronouns=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !! | |||
|- | |||
| inter. || ƕer || ƕes || ƕem || ƕen || ''who, whose, to whom, whom'' | |||
|- | |||
| inter.pl. || ƕīr || ƕīr || ƕīm || ƕīn || ''who, &c'', plural. | |||
|- | |||
| rel. || qer || qes || qem || qen || ''who/which, &c'' | |||
|- | |||
| rel.pl. || qīr || qīr || qīm || qīn || ''who/which, &c'', plural. | |||
|- | |||
| gen. || man || hes || hem || man || ''one, one’s, &c'' | |||
|- | |||
| non-sp. || þer || þes || þem || þen || ''“singular ‘they’”'' | |||
|- | |||
| neg. || ner || nes || nem || nen || ''noöne, noöne’s, &c'' | |||
|- | |||
| sel. || ƕet || ƕes<sup>ii</sup> || ƕem || ƕet || ''which (one), &c'' | |||
|- | |||
| sel.rel. || qet || qes<sup>ii</sup> || qem || qet || ''that/which, &c'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| 5 || fem || femtehɴ || femtag || fem hundraðþ || fem þūshᵫnðʀ || qenteliōn | | 5 || fem || femtehɴ || femtag || fem hundraðþ || fem þūshᵫnðʀ || qenteliōn | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 6 || ſecs || | | 6 || ſecs || ſecstehɴ || ſecstag || ſecs hundraðþ || ſecs þūshᵫnðʀ || ſecsteliōn | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 7 || ſevɴ || ſevɴtehɴ || ſevɴtag || ſevɴ hundraðþ || ſevɴ þūshᵫnðʀ || ſevɴteliōn | | 7 || ſevɴ || ſevɴtehɴ || ſevɴtag || ſevɴ hundraðþ || ſevɴ þūshᵫnðʀ || ſevɴteliōn | ||
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<sup>i</sup> Our English word ‘hundred’ is actually a compound of two words, from Proto-Germanic *''hundą'' ‘hundred’ and *''raþjō'' ‘count’. In Northeadish, the singular word ''hund'' ‘hundred’ does not have the ''–raðþ'' ending, but it is added in the plural. Note, however, that ''–raðþ'' is dropped for ordinals. | <sup>i</sup> Our English word ‘hundred’ is actually a compound of two words, from Proto-Germanic *''hundą'' ‘hundred’ and *''raþjō'' ‘count’. In Northeadish, the singular word ''hund'' ‘hundred’ does not have the ''–raðþ'' ending, but it is added in the plural. Note, however, that ''–raðþ'' is dropped for ordinals. | ||
<sup>ii</sup> The larger “-illion” numbers, borrowed in most languages from Latin roots, start out simply enough in Northeadish: ''meliōn'' and ''beliōn'' are fairly direct borrowing. By the third iteration, ‘trillion’, the initial ‹t› has been replaced to make it resemble the native word for ‘three.’ The fourth through sixth iterations are also fairly standard, but the seventh through ninth are indisputably nativized. The tenth iteration, '' | <sup>ii</sup> The larger “-illion” numbers, borrowed in most languages from Latin roots, start out simply enough in Northeadish: ''meliōn'' and ''beliōn'' are fairly direct borrowing. By the third iteration, ‘trillion’, the initial ‹t› has been replaced to make it resemble the native word for ‘three.’ The fourth through sixth iterations are also fairly standard, but the seventh through ninth are indisputably nativized. The tenth iteration, ''decteliōn'', is back to a Latin root, but the ‹te› preceding ''–liōn'' since the fifth iteration has been retained. Numerals higher than ''decteliōn'' are still in dispute among Northeadish scholars; fortunately they are not used often enough to cause many problems. | ||
<sup>iii</sup> In addition to the standard forms (“one hundred, one hundred ten, &c.”) Northeadish also retains the terms ''tehɴtag'' ‘“ten-ty’”, ''eleftag'' ‘“eleven-ty’”, and ''tveleftag'' ‘“twelf-ty’”, hearkening back to an earlier duodecimal system. | <sup>iii</sup> In addition to the standard forms (“one hundred, one hundred ten, &c.”) Northeadish also retains the terms ''tehɴtag'' ‘“ten-ty’”, ''eleftag'' ‘“eleven-ty’”, and ''tveleftag'' ‘“twelf-ty’”, hearkening back to an earlier duodecimal system. | ||
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====‹r›-stem==== | ====‹r›-stem==== | ||
Those determiners ending in ‹r›, including ''her'' ‘her’, ''hīr'' ‘their’, ''ƕīr'' ‘whose’, ''iȳr'' ‘your’, | Those determiners ending in ‹r›, including ''her'' ‘her’, ''hīr'' ‘their’, ''ƕīr'' ‘whose’, ''iȳr'' ‘your’, ''qīr'' ‘whose’, and ''ſīr'' ‘their (rfl.)’ decline as follows. (''Her'' does not have a long vowel, so the neuter singular is not shortened.) The main distinction with this and the next group is that those declensions in ‹ʀ› (feminine genitive and dative and plural genitive) are deleted because of the phonology of the language (See Phonology: Assimilation of [ɾ].) | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. | ! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''hes''''' ‘his, its’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''ƕes''''' ‘whose (sg.)’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''nes''''' ‘noöne’s’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''þes''''' ‘“their” (sg.), someone’s’ | || ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''hes''''' ‘his, its’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''ƕes''''' ‘whose (sg.)’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''nes''''' ‘noöne’s’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''qes''''' ‘whose (rel.)’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''þes''''' ‘“their” (sg.), someone’s’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Masc.''' || hes ||rowspan=2| heſ'''as''' ||rowspan=2| heſ'''ᴍ''' || heſ'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || ƕes ||rowspan=2| ƕeſ'''as''' ||rowspan=2| ƕeſ'''ᴍ''' || ƕeſ'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || nes ||rowspan=2| neſ'''as''' ||rowspan=2| neſ'''ᴍ''' || neſ'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || þes ||rowspan=2| þeſ'''as''' ||rowspan=2| þeſ'''ᴍ''' || þeſ'''ɴ''' | |align="right"| '''Masc.''' || hes ||rowspan=2| heſ'''as''' ||rowspan=2| heſ'''ᴍ''' || heſ'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || ƕes ||rowspan=2| ƕeſ'''as''' ||rowspan=2| ƕeſ'''ᴍ''' || ƕeſ'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || nes ||rowspan=2| neſ'''as''' ||rowspan=2| neſ'''ᴍ''' || neſ'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || qes ||rowspan=2| qeſ'''as''' ||rowspan=2| qeſ'''ᴍ''' || qeſ'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || þes ||rowspan=2| þeſ'''as''' ||rowspan=2| þeſ'''ᴍ''' || þeſ'''ɴ''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Neu.''' || heſ'''t''' || heſ'''t''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || ƕeſ'''t''' || ƕeſ'''t''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || neſ'''t''' || neſ'''t''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || þeſ'''t''' || þeſ'''t''' | |align="right"| '''Neu.''' || heſ'''t''' || heſ'''t''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || ƕeſ'''t''' || ƕeſ'''t''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || neſ'''t''' || neſ'''t''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || qeſ'''t''' || qeſ'''t''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || þeſ'''t''' || þeſ'''t''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Fem.''' ||rowspan=2| heſ'''a''' ||rowspan=2| heſ'''ʀ''' || heſ'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| heſ'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| ƕeſ'''a''' ||rowspan=2| ƕeſ'''ʀ''' || ƕeſ'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| ƕeſ'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| neſ'''a''' ||rowspan=2| neſ'''ʀ''' || neſ'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| neſ'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| þeſ'''a''' ||rowspan=2| þeſ'''ʀ''' || þeſ'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| þeſ'''a''' | |align="right"| '''Fem.''' ||rowspan=2| heſ'''a''' ||rowspan=2| heſ'''ʀ''' || heſ'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| heſ'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| ƕeſ'''a''' ||rowspan=2| ƕeſ'''ʀ''' || ƕeſ'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| ƕeſ'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| neſ'''a''' ||rowspan=2| neſ'''ʀ''' || neſ'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| neſ'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| qeſ'''a''' ||rowspan=2| qeſ'''ʀ''' || qeſ'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| qeſ'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| þeſ'''a''' ||rowspan=2| þeſ'''ʀ''' || þeſ'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| þeſ'''a''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Pl.''' || heſ'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || ƕeſ'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || neſ'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || þeſ'''ᴍ''' | |align="right"| '''Pl.''' || heſ'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || ƕeſ'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || neſ'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || qeſ'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || þeſ'''ᴍ''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. | ! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''hat''''' ‘this’ | || ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''hat''''' ‘this’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''ƕat''''' ‘what’ ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''ƕet''''' ‘which one’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''iat''''' ‘that, yonder’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Masc.''' ||rowspan=2| hat ||rowspan=2| hat'''as''' ||rowspan=2| hat'''ᴍ''' || hat'''ɴ''' | |align="right"| '''Masc.''' ||rowspan=2| hat ||rowspan=2| hat'''as''' ||rowspan=2| hat'''ᴍ''' || hat'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| ƕat ||rowspan=2| ƕat'''as''' ||rowspan=2| ƕat'''ᴍ''' || ƕat'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| ƕet ||rowspan=2| ƕet'''as''' ||rowspan=2| ƕet'''ᴍ''' || ƕet'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| iat ||rowspan=2| iat'''as''' ||rowspan=2| iat'''ᴍ''' || iat'''ɴ''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Neu.''' || hat ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || | |align="right"| '''Neu.''' || hat ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || ƕet ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || ƕat ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || iat | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Fem.''' ||rowspan=2| hat'''a''' ||rowspan=2| hat'''ʀ''' || hat'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| hat'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| ƕat'''a''' ||rowspan=2| ƕat'''ʀ''' || ƕat'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| ƕat'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| | |align="right"| '''Fem.''' ||rowspan=2| hat'''a''' ||rowspan=2| hat'''ʀ''' || hat'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| hat'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| ƕat'''a''' ||rowspan=2| ƕat'''ʀ''' || ƕat'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| ƕat'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| ƕet'''a''' ||rowspan=2| ƕet'''ʀ''' || ƕet'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| ƕet'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| iat'''a''' ||rowspan=2| iat'''ʀ''' || iat'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| iat'''a''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Pl.''' || hat'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || ƕat'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || | |align="right"| '''Pl.''' || hat'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || ƕat'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || ƕet'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || iat'''ᴍ''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. | ! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|| ||colspan=4 align="center"| ''''' | || ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''nat''''' ‘no, none’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''qat''''' ‘what (rel.)’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''qet''''' ‘which one (rel.)’ ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||colspan=4 align="center"| '''''þat''''' ‘that’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Masc.''' ||rowspan=2| | |align="right"| '''Masc.''' ||rowspan=2| nat ||rowspan=2| nat'''as''' ||rowspan=2| nat'''ᴍ''' || nat'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| qat ||rowspan=2| qat'''as''' ||rowspan=2| qat'''ᴍ''' || qat'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| qet ||rowspan=2| qet'''as''' ||rowspan=2| qet'''ᴍ''' || qet'''ɴ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| þat ||rowspan=2| þat'''as''' ||rowspan=2| þat'''ᴍ''' || þat'''ɴ''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Neu.''' || | |align="right"| '''Neu.''' || nat ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || qat ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || qet ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || þat | ||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| '''Fem.''' ||rowspan=2| | |align="right"| '''Fem.''' ||rowspan=2| nat'''a''' ||rowspan=2| nat'''ʀ''' || nat'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| nat'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| qat'''a''' ||rowspan=2| qat'''ʀ''' || qat'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| qat'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| qet'''a''' ||rowspan=2| qet'''ʀ''' || qet'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| qet'''a''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||rowspan=2| þat'''a''' ||rowspan=2| þat'''ʀ''' || þat'''ʀ''' ||rowspan=2| þat'''a''' | ||
|- | |||
|align="right"| '''Pl.''' || nat'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || qat'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || qet'''ᴍ''' ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom:none"| || þat'''ᴍ''' | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
===Correlatives & Pro-Forms=== | |||
The Northeadish system of correlatives is similar to those in many other Germanic languages, though, through analogy, it has grown to be far more extensive than any other. The correlative system is based on six simple roots: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! P.I.E. !! !! P.Gmc. !! !! Nthd. | |||
|- | |||
| *''k-'' || → || *''h-'' || → || ''h-'' (proximal) | |||
|- | |||
| *''t-'' || → || *''þ-'' || → || ''þ-'' (medial) | |||
|- | |||
| *''i-'' || → || *''j-'' || → || ''i-'' (distal) | |||
|- | |||
| *''kʷ-'' || → || *''hw-'' ||rowspan=2 align="right"| →<br />↘ || ''ƕ-'' (interrogative) | |||
|- | |||
| || || || ''q-''<sup>i</sup> (relative) | |||
|- | |||
| *''n-'' || → || *''n-'' || → || ''n-'' (negative) | |||
|} | |||
Though the Northeadish correlative system is more thorough than those of other Germanic languages, it is still by no means complete. Many other common words already hold the place of some of the correlatives; they are noted below. | |||
====Deictics==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! !! Proximal (h-) !! Medial (þ-) !! Distal (i-) | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| place: -''ar'' || ''har'' ‘here’ || ''þar'' ‘there’ || ''iar'' ‘yonder, elsewhere’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| to a place: -''aðra'' || ''haðra'' ‘hither’ || ''þaðra'' ‘thither’ || ''iaðra'' ‘yonder’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| from a place: -''arɴ'' || ''harɴ'' ‘hence’ || ''þarɴ'' ‘thence’ || ''iarɴ'' ‘“yence”, from yonder’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| time: -''an'' || ''han'' ‘now’ || ''þan'' ‘then’ || ''ian'' ‘yore, elsewhen’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| thing: -''at'' || ''hat'' ‘this’ || ''þat'' ‘that’ || ''iat'' ‘something else’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| person<sup>ii</sup>: -''er'' || ''her''<sup>iii</sup> ‘her’ || ''þer''<sup>iv</sup> ‘they (sg.)’ || ''ier'' ‘someone else’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| manner: -''ū'' || ''hū'' ‘like this’ || ''þū''<sup>v</sup> ‘thou’ || ''iū''<sup>vi</sup> ‘yes’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| reason: -''ī'' || ''hī''<sup>viii</sup> ‘herefore, he’ || ''þī'' ‘therefore’ || ''iī'' ‘elsewhy’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| result: -''us'' || ''hus'' ‘herewith’ || ''þus'' ‘thus’ || ''ius'' ‘elsewith’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| abstract: -''et'' || ''het'' ‘it’ || ''þet'' ‘the’ || ''iet''<sup>ix</sup> ‘yet’ | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====Qualifiers==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! !! Interrogative (ƕ-) !! Relative (q-) !! Negative (n-) | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| place: -''ar'' || ''ƕar'' ‘where’ || ''qar'' ‘where’ || ''nar'' ‘nowhere’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| to a place: -''aðra'' || ''ƕaðra'' ‘whither’ || ''qaðra'' ‘whither’ || ''naðra'' ‘to nowhere’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| from a place: -''arɴ'' || ''ƕarɴ'' ‘whence’ || ''qarɴ'' ‘whence’ || ''narɴ'' ‘from nowhere’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| time: -''an'' || ''ƕan'' ‘when’ || ''qan'' ‘when’ || ''nan'' ‘never’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| thing: -''at'' || ''ƕat'' ‘what’ || ''qat'' ‘what’ || ''nat'' ‘nothing’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| person<sup>ii</sup>: -''er'' || ''ƕer'' ‘who’ || ''qer'' ‘who’ || ''ner'' ‘noöne’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| manner: -''ū'' || ''ƕū'' ‘how’ || '''qū'' ‘how’ || ''nū''<sup>vii</sup> ‘in no way, now’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| reason: -''ī'' || ''ƕī'' ‘wherefore, why’ || ''qī'' ‘wherefore, why’ || ''nī'' ‘for no reason’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| result: -''us'' || ''ƕus'' ‘wherewith’ || ''qus'' ‘wherewith’ || ''nus'' ‘-’ | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| abstract: -''et'' || ''ƕet'' ‘which’ || ''qet'' ‘which’ || ''net'' ‘not’ | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
<sup>i</sup> Northeadish ''q-'' is believed to have developed from a stressed ''ƕ-'', and is used exclusively for relatives. This is one piece of evidence that the Northeadish people may have lived for a time in proximity to a Uralic-speaking population which preserves the distinction between interrogative and relative adverbs and pronouns, though others argue that Proto-Norse may have borrowed heavily from Sami and Finnic (and vice versa), yet it did not assimilate this sort of distinction. | |||
<sup>ii</sup> These pronouns also decline in regular ways. See [[Northeadish#Pronouns|Pronouns]]. | |||
<sup>iii</sup> ''Her'' has been replaced by the dative and accusative inflection of the third person singular feminine pronoun ''ſī'' in Northeadish (‘her’, from *''hėzō''), though if the correlative were assimilated, it would have meant something like ‘this person’. Similarly, the inflections which would have been extrapolated from this form would have been occupied by the third person singular masculine pronoun: genitive ''hes'' ‘his’, dative ''hem'' ‘him’, and accusative ''hen'' ‘him’. | |||
<sup>iv</sup>The medial version of the above, ''þer'' (‘that person’), has come to be used as a non-specific third person singular pronoun, much like we use ''they'', ''them'', or ''their'' in (prescriptively-incorrect-but descriptively-happening-whether-you-like-it-or-not) English to refer to someone whose gender is unknown, e.g. “Someone left ''their'' book here.” | |||
<sup>v</sup>''Þū'' has been replaced entirely by the second person singular nominative pronoun (‘thou’, from *''þū''). | |||
<sup>vi</sup>''İū'' has been replaced entirely by the “affirmative rebuke” (‘yes, it is’, ‘“yuh-huh”’, from *''jō''?). | |||
<sup>vii</sup>''Nū'' shares a space with the descendant of *''nu'', whose primary semantic role was taken over by ''han'' (above), but which is still widely used, particularly in th sense of ‘right now, immediately’. | |||
<sup>viii</sup>''Hī'' shares a space with the third person masculine singular pronoun (‘he’, from *''hėz''), though ''hī'' does still appear occasionally with the meaning ‘for this reason.’ | |||
<sup>ix</sup>''İet'' has been replaced entirely by the adverb ‘yet’ (from *''juta''). | |||
==Verbs== | |||
''I haven't got quite as far as describing the verbs yet, but everyone likes a good conjugation of their favorite irregular verbs, right? So here you go:'' | |||
''verɴ'' ‘to be’ | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! !! !!colspan=2| Preterit !!colspan=2| Present !! Imperative | |||
|- | |||
|| '''Infinitive:''' ||align="right"| || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || | |||
|- | |||
|| ''verɴ'' ||align="right"| ''ec'' || ''var'' || ''vǣra'' || ''æm'' || ''ſī(a)'' || | |||
|- | |||
|| ||align="right"| ''þū'' || ''varſt'' || ''vǣraſt'' || ''ærſt'' || ''ſī(a)ſt'' || ''ſī'' | |||
|- | |||
|rowspan=2| '''Present<br />Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''hī/ſī'' || ''var'' || ''vǣra'' || ''ærðþ'' || ''ſī(a)'' || | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| ''vet'' || ''vāra'' || ''vǣrma'' || ''ara'' || ''ſīma'' || ''ſīma'' | |||
|- | |||
|| ''verɴða'' ||align="right"| ''iᵫt'' || ''vārſt'' || ''vǣrſt'' || ''arſt'' || ''ſīſt'' || ''ſīſt'' | |||
|- | |||
|rowspan=2| '''Past<br />Participle:''' ||align="right"| vī'' || ''vārᴍ'' || ''vǣrᴍ'' || ''arᴍ'' || ''ſīm'' || ''ſīm'' | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| ''iȳ'' || ''vārðþ'' || ''vǣrðþ'' || ''arðþ'' || ''ſīðþ'' || ''ſīðþ'' | |||
|- | |||
|| ''gaverɴ'' ||align="right"| ''ſī'' || ''vārɴþ'' || ''vǣrɴþ'' || ''arɴþ'' || ''ſīnðþ'' || | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
''gān~ganɴ'' ‘to go’ | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! !! !!colspan=2| Preterit !!colspan=2| Present !! Imperative | |||
|- | |||
|| '''Infinitive:''' ||align="right"| || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || | |||
|- | |||
|| ''gān~ganɴ'' ||align="right"| ''ec'' || ''gæŋ'' || ''gæŋa'' || ''gām~gaŋa'' || ''gaŋa'' || | |||
|- | |||
|| ||align="right"| ''þū'' || ''gæŋſt'' || ''gæŋaſt'' || ''gǣſt~gæŋſt'' || ''gaŋaſt'' || ''gǣ~gaŋ'' | |||
|- | |||
|rowspan=2| '''Present<br />Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''hī/ſī'' || ''gæŋ'' || ''gæŋa'' || ''gǣðþ~gæŋðþ'' || ''gaŋa'' || | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| ''vet'' || ''gæŋa'' || ''gæŋma'' || ''gā~gaŋa'' || ''gaŋama'' || ''gā~gaŋa'' | |||
|- | |||
|| ''gānða~gaŋɴða'' ||align="right"| ''iᵫt'' || ''gæŋſt'' || ''gæŋaſt'' || ''gāſt~gaŋſt'' || ''gaŋaſt'' || ''gāſt~gaŋſt'' | |||
|- | |||
|rowspan=2| '''Past<br />Participle:''' ||align="right"| vī'' || ''gæŋᴍ'' || ''gæŋᴍ'' || ''gām~gaŋᴍ'' || ''gaŋᴍ'' || ''gām~gaŋᴍ'' | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| ''iȳ'' || ''gæŋðþ'' || ''gæŋaðþ'' || ''gāðþ~gaŋðþ'' || ''gaŋaðþ'' || ''gāðþ~gaŋðþ'' | |||
|- | |||
|| ''gagān~gagaŋɴ'' ||align="right"| ''ſī'' || ''gæŋɴþ'' || ''gæŋɴþ'' || ''gānðþ~gaŋɴþ'' || ''gaŋɴþ'' || | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
''dōn'' ‘to do’ | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! !! !!colspan=2| Preterit !!colspan=2| Present !! Imperative | |||
|- | |||
|| '''Infinitive:''' ||align="right"| || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || | |||
|- | |||
|| ''dōn'' ||align="right"| ''ec'' || ''dæðþ'' || ''dǣða '' || '' dōm '' || '' dōa '' || | |||
|- | |||
|| ||align="right"| ''þū'' || ''dæſt'' || ''dǣðaſt '' || '' dœ̄ſt '' || '' dōaſt '' || '' dœ̄ '' | |||
|- | |||
|rowspan=2| '''Present<br />Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''hī/ſī '' || ''dæðþ'' || ''dǣða '' || '' dœ̄ðþ '' || '' dōa '' || | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| ''vet'' || ''dāða'' || ''dǣðma '' || '' dō '' || '' dōma '' || '' dō '' | |||
|- | |||
|| ''dōnða'' ||align="right"| ''iᵫt'' || ''dāðaſt'' || ''dǣðaſt '' || '' dōſt '' || '' dōaſt '' || '' dōſt '' | |||
|- | |||
|rowspan=2| '''Past<br />Participle:''' ||align="right"| vī '' || ''dāðᴍ'' || ''dǣðᴍ '' || '' dōm '' || '' dōm '' || '' dōm '' | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| ''iȳ'' || ''dāðaðþ'' || ''dǣðaðþ '' || '' dōðþ '' || '' dōaðþ '' || '' dōðþ '' | |||
|- | |||
|| ''gadān'' ||align="right"| ''ſī'' || ''dāðɴþ '' || ''dǣðɴþ '' || '' dōnðþ '' || '' dōnðþ '' || | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
''ſtān~ſtandɴ'' ‘to stay, to stand, to be’ | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! !! !!colspan=2| Preterit !!colspan=2| Present !! Imperative | |||
|- | |||
|| '''Infinitive:''' ||align="right"| || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || | |||
|- | |||
|| ''stān~standɴ'' ||align="right"| ''ec'' || ''ſtōðþ'' || ''ſtœ̄ða '' || ''ſtām~ſtanda'' || ''ſtanda '' || | |||
|- | |||
|| ||align="right"| ''þū'' || ''ſtōſt '' || ''ſtœ̄ðaſt '' || ''ſtǣſt~ſtændaſt '' || ''ſtandaſt '' || ''ſtǣ~ſtand'' | |||
|- | |||
|rowspan=2| '''Present<br />Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''hī/ſī '' || ''ſtōðþ'' || ''ſtœ̄ða '' || ''ſtǣðþ~ſtændaðþ '' || ''ſtanda '' || | |||
|- | |||
|align="right"| ''vet'' || ''ſtōða'' || ''ſtœ̄ðma '' || ''ſtā~ſtanda'' || ''ſtandma '' || ''ſtā~ſtanda'' | |||
|- | |||
|| ''ſtānða~ſtandɴða '' ||align="right"| ''iᵫt'' || ''ſtōðaſt '' || ''ſtœ̄ðaſt '' || ''ſtāſt~ſtandaſt '' || ''ſtandaſt '' || ''ſtāſt~ſtandaſt '' | |||
|- | |||
|rowspan=2| '''Past<br />Participle:''' ||align="right"| vī '' || ''ſtōðᴍ '' || ''ſtœ̄ðᴍ '' || ''ſtām~ſtandᴍ '' || ''ſtandᴍ '' || ''ſtām~ſtandᴍ '' | |||
|- | |- | ||
|align="right"| ''' | |align="right"| ''iȳ'' || ''ſtōðþ '' || ''ſtœ̄ðaðþ '' || ''ſtāðþ~ſtandaðþ '' || ''ſtandaðþ '' || ''ſtāðþ~ſtandaðþ '' | ||
|- | |||
|| '' gaſtān~gaſtandɴ '' ||align="right"| ''ſī'' || ''ſtōðɴþ '' || ''ſtœ̄ðɴþ '' || ''ſtānðþ~ſtandɴþ '' || ''ſtandɴþ '' || | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||