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→‎Phonology of Old Valthungian ca. 950 a.d.
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“''Unstressed '''a''' is deleted word-finally after a nasal consonant or '''t'''.''”
“''Unstressed '''a''' is deleted word-finally after a nasal consonant or '''t'''.''”


==Phonology of Old Valthungian ca. 950 a.d.==
==Orthography of Old Valthungian==
===Vowels===
There is very little extant text in Old Valthungian, and what does exist is quite variable, but this is a “regularlised” version of the orthography used at the time, with notes where there are variants.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width: 1100px;"
|-
!width=65px| Griutungi
!width=65px| IPA
!width=65px| Old Val.
!width=65px| Roman.
!width=165px| Variants
!width=200px| Examples
!width=540px| Notes
|-
|valign="top"| a
|valign="top"| ɑ
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-a.png|13px|A]]
|valign="top"| '''a'''
|align="left" valign="top"|  
|valign="top"| '''''a'''rms'' ‘poor’<br />''g'''a'''f'' ‘gave’<br />'''''a'''nþ'''a'''r'' ‘second’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| ā
|valign="top"| ɑː
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-aa.png|28px|AA]]
|valign="top"| '''aa'''
|align="left" valign="top"| a, ā
|valign="top"| ''h'''aa'''hs'' ‘shark’<br />''f'''aa'''han'' ‘to capture’<br />''andaþ'''aa'''ht'' ‘rational’
|align="left" valign="top"| Long vowels were sometimes indicated by doubling, sometimes with a macron or any of a half dozen other markings, or ignored completely.
|-
|valign="top"| ǣ
|valign="top"| ɛː
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-ae.png|28px|AE]]
|valign="top"| '''ae'''
|align="left" valign="top"| ai, ee
|valign="top"| ''br'''ae'''þ'' ‘wide’<br />'''''ae'''ðij'' ‘mother’<br />''tw'''ae''''' ‘two’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| ǭ
|valign="top"| ɔː
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-ao.png|28px|AO]]
|valign="top"| '''ao'''
|align="left" valign="top"| au, oa, oo, ō
|valign="top"| '''''ao'''gyou'' ‘eye’<br />''fr'''ao'''s'' ‘happy’<br />''n'''ao'''huhþan'' ‘still, yet’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| b
|valign="top"| b
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-b.png|13px|B]]
|valign="top"| '''b'''
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| '''''b'''arðou'' ‘axe’<br />''krah'''b'''a'' ‘crab’<br />''kal'''b''''' ‘calf’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| b
|valign="top"| b → β
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-bv.png|26px|BV]]
|valign="top"| '''bv'''
|align="left" valign="top"| vv
|valign="top"| ''sil'''bv'''a'' ‘self’<br />''ar'''bv'''i'' ‘inheritance’<br />''hlae'''bv'''a'' ‘bread.<span style="font-variant: small-caps>dat</span>’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| g
|valign="top"| ɡ
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-g.png|12px|G]]
|valign="top"| '''g'''
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| '''''g'''ibvan'' ‘to give’<br />'''''g'''ardz'' ‘yard’<br />''da'''g'''z'' ‘day’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| g
|valign="top"| ɡ → ɣ
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-gy.png|25px|GY]]
|valign="top"| '''gy'''
|align="left" valign="top"| y, gð
|valign="top"| ''ao'''gy'''ou'' ‘eye’<br />''ba'''gy'''ms'' ‘tree’<br />''i'''gy'''il'' ‘hedgehog’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| d
|valign="top"| d
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-d.png|17px|D]]
|valign="top"| '''d'''
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| '''''d'''agz'' ‘day’<br />''ah'''d'''i'' ‘egg’<br />''wor'''d''''' ‘word’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| d
|valign="top"| d → ð
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-ð.png|20px|Ð]]
|valign="top"| '''ð'''
|align="left" valign="top"| dv, dd, δ
|valign="top"| ''ae'''ð'''ij'' ‘mother’<br />''dala'''ð'''a'' ‘down’<br />''þju'''ð'''ij'' ‘meaning’
|align="left" valign="top"| Though ð is used here for transcription, a letter derived from the Gothic letter ''dags'' (but resembling ϫ, the Coptic ''gangia'') was more often used.
|-
|valign="top"| e
|valign="top"| ɛ
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-e.png|13px|E]]
|valign="top"| '''e'''
|align="left" valign="top"| ai
|valign="top"| '''''e'''rða'' ‘earth’<br />''m'''e'''rij'' ‘sea’<br />''s'''e'''tjan'' ‘to set’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| -
|valign="top"| œː
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-eao.png|40px|EAO]]
|valign="top"| '''eao'''
|align="left" valign="top"| eoa, eō, eoo
|valign="top"| '''''eao'''ðijs'' ‘desert’<br />''f'''eao'''djan'' ‘to feed’<br />''h'''eao'''hij'' ‘height’
|align="left" valign="top"| This was used for the umlauted form of '''ao''' (Griutungi '''ǭ''', Gothic '''au''').
|-
|valign="top"| ē
|valign="top"| eː → ei̯
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-ei.png|18px|EI]]
|valign="top"| '''ei'''
|align="left" valign="top"| ē, ee, ej
|valign="top"| ''m'''ei'''na'' ‘moon’<br />'''''ei'''maeti'' ‘ant’<br />''sw'''ei''''' ‘such, thus’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| -
|valign="top"| œ
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-eo.png|25px|EO]]
|valign="top"| '''eo'''
|align="left" valign="top"| oe, ø
|valign="top"| ''w'''eo'''rkjan'' ‘to work’<br />'''''eo'''rkjus'' ‘jug’<br />''d'''eo'''htrjus'' ‘daughters’
|align="left" valign="top"| This was used for the umlauted form of '''o''' (Griutungi '''o''', Gothic '''au''').
|-
|valign="top"| -
|valign="top"| øː~øu̯
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-eou.png|40px|EOU]]
|valign="top"| '''eou'''
|align="left" valign="top"| eoo, eō, ooe
|valign="top"| ''afm'''eou'''ðij'' ‘disagreement’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| This was used for the umlauted form of '''oo''' (Griutungi and Gothic '''ō''').
|-
|valign="top"| -
|valign="top"| y
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-eu.png|28px|EU]]
|valign="top"| '''eu'''
|align="left" valign="top"| y, ue
|valign="top"| ''f'''eu'''tlijns'' ‘fulfillment’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| This was used for the umlauted form of '''u'''.
|-
|valign="top"| -
|valign="top"| yː
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-euv.png|42px|EUV]]
|valign="top"| '''euv'''
|align="left" valign="top"| yy, uue, euu, eeu
|valign="top"| ''heuvhjan'' ‘to hoard’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| This was used for the umlauted form of '''uv''' (Griutungi and Gothic '''ū''').
|-
|valign="top"| kw
|valign="top"| kʷ → kw
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-qv.png|23px|QV]]
|valign="top"| '''qv'''
|align="left" valign="top"| kv, q, ku, cv, cu
|valign="top"| ''qvernu'' ‘mill’<br />''inqvis'' ‘to you both’<br />''riqviza'' ‘darker’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| z
|valign="top"| z → ʐ
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-z.png|13px|Z]]
|valign="top"| '''z'''
|align="left" valign="top"| ȥ
|valign="top"| ''þizae'' ‘to that’<br />''hwizazij'' ‘whatever’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| h
|valign="top"| h~x
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-h.png|13px|H]]
|valign="top"| '''h'''
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| ''hertou'' ‘heart’<br />''tehun'' ‘ten’<br />''fah'' ‘glad’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| þ
|valign="top"| θ
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-th.png|18px|Þ]]
|valign="top"| '''þ'''
|align="left" valign="top"| th, fh, c<ref>'''c''' for /θ/ is anomalous, only appearing in one extant instance, and is most likely the result of a transcription error, though many have used it (grossly incorrectly) to associate Old Valthungian with the Iberian Goths, positing that this somehow relates to ''ceceo'' in modern Spanish. It absolutely does not, and the Old Valthungian speakers never came within 500 miles of present-day Spain, but facts have never stood in the way of good speculation.</ref>
|valign="top"| ''þjuþ'' ‘people’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| From the Gothic 〈𐌸〉, this letter represented [θ] in Old Valthungian as it did in Gothic, but became [v] and was replaced by 〈ɵ〉 for [θ] in the 11th century.
|-
|valign="top"| i
|valign="top"| i
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-i.png|4px|I]]
|valign="top"| '''i'''
|align="left"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| ''igyil'' ‘hedgehog’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| ī
|valign="top"| iː
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-ij.png|10px|IJ]]
|valign="top"| '''ij'''
|align="left" valign="top"| ī, ei, ij
|valign="top"| ''ijs'' ‘ice’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|-
! width=100px rowspan="2"|
|valign="top"| j
! colspan="2"| '''Short Vowels'''
|valign="top"| j
! rowspan="6"|
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-j.png|13px|J]] [[File:OV-j2.png|8px|J2]]
! colspan="2"| '''Long Vowels'''
|valign="top"| '''j'''
|align="left" valign="top"| i
|valign="top"| ''jeir'' ‘year’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| After 〈i〉 and before 〈u〉, 〈j〉 was written as [[File:OV-j2.png|5px|J2]], though both [[File:OV-j.png|8px|J]] and [[File:OV-j2.png|5px|J2]] are transliterated as 〈j〉.
|-
|-
! width=65px| '''Front'''
|valign="top"| iu
! width=65px| '''Back'''
|valign="top"| iu̯ → ju
! width=65px| '''Front'''
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-ju.png|23px|JU]]
! width=65px| '''Back'''
|valign="top"| '''ju'''
|align="left" valign="top"| iu, iv, jv
|valign="top"| ''jup'' ‘up’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|-
!'''Close'''
|valign="top"| k
|'''i · eu'''<br />[i · y]
|valign="top"| k
|'''u'''<br />[u]
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-k.png|13px|K]]
|'''ij · euv'''<br />[iː · yː]
|valign="top"| '''k'''
|'''uv'''<br />[uː]
|align="left" valign="top"| c
|valign="top"| ''korts'' ‘short’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| Sometimes written as '''kh''' or '''ch''' when aspirated.
|-
|-
!'''Mid-Close'''
|valign="top"| l
|''' · y<ref>This was likely a lax near-close vowel, not a mid-close vowel; i.e. [ʏ], not [ø]. It later merged with /y/.</ref>'''<br />[ʏ]
|valign="top"| l~ɫ̩
|
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-l.png|13px|L]]
|'''ei · eou'''<br />[eː · øː]
|valign="top"| '''l'''
|'''ou'''<br />[oː]<ref>All of the mid-close long vowels may have been diphthongs, though the spelling is likely related to conventions borrowed from early Romance languages of the time rather than an indication of dipthongisation.</ref>
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| ''langz'' ‘long’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| (Syllabic and non-syllabic sonorants were not differentiated in Old Valthungian.)
|-
|-
!'''Mid-Open'''
|valign="top"| m
|'''e · eo'''<br />[ɛ · œ]
|valign="top"| m~m̩
|'''o'''<br />[ɔ]
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-m.png|13px|M]]
|'''ae · eao'''<br />[ɛː · œː]
|valign="top"| '''m'''
|'''ao'''<br />[ɔː]
|align="left" valign="top"| (Syllabic and non-syllabic sonorants were not differentiated in Old Valthungian.)
|valign="top"| ''maeðms'' ‘gift’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|-
!'''Open'''
|valign="top"| n
|
|valign="top"| n~n̩
|'''a'''<br />[ɑ]
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-n.png|13px|N]]
|
|valign="top"| '''n'''
|'''aa'''<br />[ɑː]
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| ''naoþs'' ‘need’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| (Syllabic and non-syllabic sonorants were not differentiated in Old Valthungian.)
|-
|-
|}
|valign="top"| ng
 
|valign="top"| ŋɡ
===Consonants===
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-ng.png|26px|NG]]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|valign="top"| '''ng'''
!width=100px|
|align="left" valign="top"| gg
!width=65px|'''Labial'''
|valign="top"| ''singan'' ‘to sing’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
!width=65px|'''Dental'''
|align="left" valign="top"| Sometimes written with '''g''' instead of '''n''' in a reflection of the Gothic.
!width=65px|'''Alveolar'''
|-
!width=65px|'''Palatal'''
|valign="top"| nk
!width=65px|'''Dorsal'''
|valign="top"| ŋk
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-nk.png|27px|NK]]
|valign="top"| '''nk'''
|align="left" valign="top"| gk, gc
|valign="top"| ''drinkan'' ‘to drink’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| Sometimes written with '''g''' instead of '''n''' in a reflection of the Gothic.
|-
|valign="top"| nkw
|valign="top"| ŋkw
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-nqv.png|38px|NQV]]
|valign="top"| '''nqv'''
|align="left" valign="top"| gq, gqv, nq, nkv, ncu...
|valign="top"| ''inqvar'' ‘your’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| Sometimes written with '''g''' instead of '''n''' in a reflection of the Gothic.
|-
|valign="top"| o
|valign="top"| ɔ
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-o.png|13px|O]]
|valign="top"| '''o'''
|align="left" valign="top"| au
|valign="top"| ''ortigardz'' ‘garden’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| ō
|valign="top"| oː → ou̯
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-ou.png|28px|OU]]
|valign="top"| '''ou'''
|align="left" valign="top"| oo, ō, o, ov
|valign="top"| ''ous'' ‘river-mouth’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| p
|valign="top"| p
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-p.png|13px|P]]
|valign="top"| '''p'''
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| ''paeða'' ‘shirt’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| Sometimes written as '''ph''' when aspirated.
|-
|valign="top"| r
|valign="top"| r~r̩
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-r.png|13px|R]]
|valign="top"| '''r'''
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| ''riqvus'' ‘dark’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| (Syllabic and non-syllabic sonorants were not differentiated in Old Valthungian.)
|-
|valign="top"| s
|valign="top"| s
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-s.png|13px|S]]
|valign="top"| '''s'''
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| ''sougila'' ‘sun’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| t
|valign="top"| t
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-t.png|13px|T]]
|valign="top"| '''t'''
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| ''tungl'' ‘star’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| Sometimes written as '''th''' when aspirated.
|-
|valign="top"| u
|valign="top"| u
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-u.png|13px|U]]
|valign="top"| '''u'''
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| ''ulbvandus'' ‘camel’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| ū
|valign="top"| uː
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-uv.png|28px|UV]]
|valign="top"| '''uv'''
|align="left" valign="top"| ū, u, uu
|valign="top"| '''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|valign="top"| f
|valign="top"| ɸ
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-f.png|12px|F]]
|valign="top"| '''f'''
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| ''fimf'' ‘five’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|-
!'''Plosive'''
|valign="top"| w
|'''p · b'''<br />[p~pʰ · b]
|valign="top"| w
|'''t · d'''<br />[t~tʰ · d]
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-v.png|13px|V]]
|
|valign="top"| '''v'''
|
|align="left" valign="top"| vv, uu, ƿ
|'''k · g'''<br />[k~kʰ · g]
|valign="top"| ''vilðijs'' ‘wild’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| &nbsp;
|-
|-
!'''Nasal'''
|valign="top"| ÿ
|''' · m'''<br />[m]
|valign="top"| ʏ
|
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-y.png|13px|Y]]
|''' · n'''<br />[n]
|valign="top"| '''y'''
 
|align="left" valign="top"| y, i, u, ui
|
|valign="top"| ''prespyterij'' ‘presbytery’<br />''hyhsopus'' ‘hyssop’<br />'''' ‘’
|''' · n'''<ref>Before '''g''' or '''k'''</ref><br />[ŋ]
|align="left" valign="top"| It is likely that this was still a separate phoneme in Old Valthungian from the umlaut of '''u''', though some of the means of transcription overlapped a bit. This phoneme was used only in borrowings from the Greek, and after the Old Valthungian period, these two phonemes had completely merged.
Our intermediate transcription shows 〈ÿ〉 for the 〈ү〉 letter representing Gothic 〈𐍅/w〉 from Greek 〈υ〉. The exact pronunciation is unknown, but it seems likely that it was differentiated from 〈eu〉 (the i-umlaut of /u/) in Old Valthungian. These two sounds had merged by the Middle Valthungian period.
|-
|-
!'''Fricative'''
|valign="top"| kh
|'''f · bv'''<br />[ɸ · β]
|valign="top"| kʰ
|'''ð · þ'''<br />[ð · θ]
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-x.png|13px|KH]]
|'''s · z'''<br />[s · ʐ]
|valign="top"| '''k'''
|
|align="left" valign="top"| kh, ch, χ
|'''h · gy'''<br />[h · ɣ]
|valign="top"| '''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’<br />'''' ‘’
|align="left" valign="top"| This Greek borrowing, which was incorporated into the Gothic alphabet as '''𐍇''', had largely merged with '''k''' by the Old Valthungian period, but was occasionally still emphasized with '''h''' or even with the Greek letter '''χ''' in positions which were not naturally aspirated. Indeed, '''h''' was sometimes added to segments which ''were'' naturally aspirated, as also happened with '''p''' and '''t'''
|-
|-
!'''Approximant'''
|valign="top"| hw
|''' · v'''<br />[w]
|valign="top"| xw
|''' · l'''<br />[l̪~ɫ]
|valign="top"| [[File:OV-hw.png|18px|HV]]
|''' · r'''<br />[r~ɾ]
|valign="top"| '''hv'''
|''' · j'''<br />[j]
|align="left" valign="top"| hv, hw, chv, hu
|
|valign="top"| ''hvilftri'' ‘curve’<br />''sehvan'' ‘to see’<br />''neihv'' ‘near’
|align="left" valign="top"| The Old Valthungian letter most commonly written as [[File:OV-hw.png|11px|HV]], from Gothic '''𐍈''',  is transliterated as 〈hv〉, but later came to represent [θ] during the 11th century.
|}
|}


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