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|nativename=''L'oscanez'' | |nativename=''L'oscanez'' | ||
|pronunciation=/os.ka.ˈnez/ | |pronunciation=/os.ka.ˈnez/ | ||
|speakers= | |speakers= 1,700 | ||
|date=2015 | |date=2015 | ||
|familycolor=Indo-European | |familycolor=Indo-European | ||
| Line 20: | Line 20: | ||
== General == | == General == | ||
Oscanez, or Oscan (<small>English: /</small>ɒs.kə.ˈnez, ˈɒs,kən/ primarily called Oscan in English) [os.ka.ˈnez] is a Romance language | Oscanez, or Oscan (<small>English: /</small>ɒs.kə.ˈnez, ˈɒs,kən/ primarily called Oscan in English) [os.ka.ˈnez] is a Romance language originatin in the destroyed Roman city of Oscanium, from the Vulgar Latin spoken around that region of Spain. It is spoken in the north of Spain, near southern France. It shares several features with the Benasque dialects and High Aragonese, as well as French and Spanish. Oscanez is spoken by around 9,000 people, primarily the older generation. It is a highly endangered language. | ||
Its name, Oscanez, comes from the old city | Its name, Oscanez, comes from the old city Oscanium (''Oscanyo'', in Oscanez), in northern Spain. Historically, the inhabitants of the Oscanez speaking region were ancient Iberians, and their language influenced Oscanez. The Oscanses were also influenced by the Arabs in the middle ages, and the French, Portuguese and Spanish in the modern age. | ||
<br /> | <br /> | ||
== Phonology == | == Phonology == | ||
Oscanez is a (C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) language | Oscanez is a (C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) language. | ||
=== Consonants === | === Consonants === | ||
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|style="text-align:center;"|t | |style="text-align:center;"|t | ||
| | | | ||
|style="text-align:center;"| | |style="text-align:center;"|tʃ | ||
|style="text-align:center;"|k | |style="text-align:center;"|k | ||
|- | |- | ||
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! rowspan="2" |Fricative | ! rowspan="2" |Fricative | ||
!Voiceless Fricative | !Voiceless Fricative | ||
| style="text-align:center;" | | | style="text-align:center;" |ɸ | ||
| | | | ||
| style="text-align:center;" |s | | style="text-align:center;" |s | ||
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*/t/ and /d/ are laminal denti-alveolar, but are called dental for simplicity. | */t/ and /d/ are laminal denti-alveolar, but are called dental for simplicity. | ||
* /tʃ/ is not a common sound in Oscanez, but is found in loanwords, especially deriving from Spanish or English, but it is also an allophone of /ʎ/ at onset position. | * /tʃ/ is not a common sound in Oscanez, but is found in loanwords, especially deriving from Spanish or English, but it is also an allophone of /ʎ/ at onset position. | ||
*/ɸ/ has the allophone [h] when it is after /m/, such as in the word ''triomfo'' [triomho]. /ɸ/ before /i/ or /e/ is preserved. It is in free variation | */ɸ/ has the allophone [h] when it is after /m/, such as in the word ''triomfo'' [triomho]. /ɸ/ before /i/ or /e/ is preserved. It is in free variation otherwise. | ||
*/s/ turns to the allophone [s̪] before dental plosives. | */s/ turns to the allophone [s̪] before dental plosives. | ||
*Unvoiced fricatives become voiced before a voiced plosive or nasal. Unvoiced plosives become fricatives and voice as well. For example, the borrowed word ''atmosfera'' /atmosɸera/ is realized as [aðmosɸera] and is sometimes just dropped [amosɸera]. Ot examples include ''ami'''g'''dala'' or ''a'''d'''ministrajón.'' | *Unvoiced fricatives become voiced before a voiced plosive or nasal. Unvoiced plosives become fricatives and voice as well. For example, the borrowed word ''atmosfera'' /atmosɸera/ is realized as [aðmosɸera] and is sometimes just dropped [amosɸera]. Ot examples include ''ami'''g'''dala'' or ''a'''d'''ministrajón.'' | ||
*/ʎ/ has a tendency to be pronounced as a fricative [ʝ]. | */ʎ/ has a tendency to be pronounced as a fricative [ʝ]. | ||
*/r/ and [ɾ] are | */r/ and [ɾ] are not distinguished by many speakers, but the general tendency is /r/ at the beginning of words and when represented by a double r. | ||
=== Vowels === | === Vowels === | ||
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| | | | ||
|} | |} | ||
There are 5 distinct vowels in Oscanez, but many more allophones for different environments, including nasality and stress. | |||
==== Allophones ==== | ==== Allophones ==== | ||
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|style="text-align:center;"|y | |style="text-align:center;"|y | ||
|} | |} | ||
/a/ and /o/, being the most sonorous vowels have the least change besides nasalization. /e/ can be pronounced like a schwa (such as English ''creati'''o'''n'') in unstressed position. /e/ with a nasal coda causes a loss of the nasal consonant. This leads to an articulation like [ẽtẽdẽmos] for ''entendemos''. Note that vowels followed by nasals are also affected, but within words the consonant is still articulated if it is the onset | /a/ and /o/, being the most sonorous vowels have the least change besides nasalization. /e/ can be pronounced like a schwa (such as English ''creati'''o'''n'') in unstressed position, but this pronunciation is optional and varies regionally. /e/ with a nasal coda causes a loss of the nasal consonant. This leads to an articulation like [ẽtẽdẽmos] for ''entendemos''. Note that vowels followed or preceded by nasals are also affected, but within words the consonant is still articulated if it is the onset. | ||
===== Liaison ===== | ===== Liaison ===== | ||
Final nasal vowels are pronounced with their consonant in environments when the next syllable begins with a vowel (including a mute ''h''). This process is similar to French liaison and is called such by linguists studying Oscanez. In the grammar it is called ''Yajón'', a cognate of English and French "liaison". | Final nasal vowels are pronounced with their consonant in environments when the next syllable begins with a vowel (including a mute ''h''). This process is similar to French liaison and is called such by linguists studying Oscanez. In the grammar it is called ''Yajón'', a cognate of English and French "liaison". | ||
The conjunctions ''e'' and ''o'' (and and or) become ''ei'' and ''u'' before /e/ and /o/, respectively. | The conjunctions ''e'' and ''o'' ("and" and "or") become ''ei'' and ''u'' before /e/ and /o/, respectively. | ||
==== Diphthongs and Triphthongs ==== | ==== Diphthongs and Triphthongs ==== | ||
Oscanez has nine rising diphthongs, and three falling diphthongs /au/ /ai/ and /ei/. The falling diphthongs include all instances of /j/ or /w/ followed by a vowel. A sequence of /kw/ can be analyzed as [kɥ]. | Oscanez has nine rising diphthongs, and three falling diphthongs /au/ /ai/ and /ei/. The falling diphthongs include all instances of /j/ or /w/ followed by a vowel. A sequence of /kw/ can be analyzed as [kɥ]. If a diphthong is nasalized, the second vowel is nasalized and undergoes the changes that monophthong would. | ||
=== Prosody === | === Prosody === | ||
Oscanez is syllable-timed. All syllables take the same amount of time to produce. | Oscanez is syllable-timed. All syllables take the same amount of time to produce. | ||
Words generally have stress on the final or penultimate syllable. Some words have natural stress on the third syllable but this is not marked. | Words generally have stress on the final or penultimate syllable. Some words have natural stress on the third syllable but this is not marked orthographically. | ||
At the end of a question intonation rises at the first word, and also at the end of the phrase. Otherwise, it is exactly like English. | At the end of a question intonation rises at the first word, and also at the end of the phrase. Otherwise, it is exactly like English. | ||
=== Phonotactics === | === Phonotactics === | ||
Oscanez has a (C)(C)V(C)(C) syllable structure. | Oscanez has a (C)(C)V(C)(C)(C) syllable structure. | ||
* Onset (can be null) | * Onset (can be null) | ||
** First consonant (C<sub>1</sub>): anything except for clusters including nasals or /s/. | ** First consonant (C<sub>1</sub>): anything except for clusters including nasals or /s/. | ||
** Second consonant (C<sub>2</sub>): rhotic or lateral (if C<sub>1</sub> is a plosive | ** Second consonant (C<sub>2</sub>): rhotic, approximant or lateral (if C<sub>1</sub> is a plosive). The clusters /tl/ and /dl/ are not allowed, and /ʎ/ is not allowed in clusters. | ||
* Nucleus | * Nucleus | ||
** Any vowel or diphthong can be positioned in the nucleus | ** Any vowel or diphthong can be positioned in the nucleus. | ||
* Coda (can be null) | * Coda (can be null) | ||
** First consonant (C<sub>1</sub>): / | ** First consonant (C<sub>1</sub>): /f/ /r/ /s/ /t/ /l/ /z/ or null, or /n/ (with ''yajón''). | ||
** Second consonant (C<sub>2</sub>): If there is a C<sub>1</sub>, then C<sub>2</sub> is | ** Second consonant (C<sub>2</sub>): If there is a C<sub>1</sub>, then C<sub>2</sub> is /s/, /t/ or /k/. | ||
*** Third consonant (C<sub>3</sub>): /s/ after /ts/ sequence. | |||
Allowed clusters across syllable boundaries include plosives followed by a rhotic, and nasals by their place of articulation plosive (/nk/, but not /mk/). /s/ is followed by unvoiced plosives, but when beginning a word must have a prosthetic /e/ (''escuila'', not ''scuila'') | Allowed clusters across syllable boundaries include plosives followed by a rhotic, and nasals by their place of articulation plosive (/nk/, but not /mk/). /s/ is followed by unvoiced plosives, but when beginning a word must have a prosthetic /e/ (''escuila'', not ''scuila''). In terms of other clusters, a maximum of three consonants can be grouped. If there is a plosive + liquid cluster, a fricative can precede them. Note that these words are generally Latin loanwords into Oscanez. | ||
=== Orthography === | === Orthography === | ||
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|k ~ s | |k ~ s | ||
|d | |d | ||
|e | |e | ||
|ɸ | |ɸ | ||
|g ~ ʒ | |g ~ ʒ | ||
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|b | |b | ||
|tʃ | |tʃ | ||
| | |ʎ | ||
|z | |z | ||
| | | | ||
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| | | | ||
|} | |} | ||
At the end of syllables the nasal letter | At the end of syllables the nasal letter shows that the vowel before is nasalized. An example of this is in the word ''formajón'', formation /for.ma.ʒõ/. | ||
Notesː | Notesː | ||
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* <h> is totally null, only occurring orthographically when etymology is wanted. This is showcased in the word ''honye'' which means man, but is pronounced [õɲe]. | * <h> is totally null, only occurring orthographically when etymology is wanted. This is showcased in the word ''honye'' which means man, but is pronounced [õɲe]. | ||
* /ɲ/ is represented by <ny>. | * /ɲ/ is represented by <ny>. | ||
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|Polas | |Polas | ||
|} | |} | ||
The personal pronoun ''jo'' can be reduced to ''j'<nowiki/>'' before a vowel. The same is true for the prepositions ''de'' and ''en'', which convert to ''d' '' and ''n' ''respectively. In reflexive verbs (or situations where ''me, te,'' and ''se'' proceed a vowel), ''me, te,'' and ''se'' also lose their vowel (''m'''). | The personal pronoun ''jo'' can be reduced to ''j'<nowiki/>'' before a vowel and null "h". The same is true for the prepositions ''de'' and ''en'', which convert to ''d' '' and ''n' ''respectively. In reflexive verbs (or situations where ''me, te,'' and ''se'' proceed a vowel), ''me, te,'' and ''se'' also lose their vowel (''m'''). The negative ''no'' also becomes ''n' '' in those situations. The conjunction ''che'' contracts to ''ch' '' before a word starting with "e." | ||
= Grammar = | = Grammar = | ||
Oscanez grammar is how the language organizes itself. It is very similar to other Romance languages | Oscanez grammar is how the language organizes itself. It is very similar to other Romance languages | ||
Oscanez is a moderately inflected language. Nouns and most pronouns are inflected for number (singular or plural, though in most nouns the plural is pronounced the same as the singular even if spelled differently); adjectives, for number and gender (masculine or feminine) of their nouns; personal pronouns and a few other pronouns, for person, number, gender, and case; and verbs, for tense, aspect, mood, and the person and number of their subjects. | Oscanez is a moderately inflected language. Nouns and most pronouns are inflected for number (singular or plural, though in most nouns the plural is pronounced the same as the singular even if spelled differently); adjectives, for number and gender (masculine or feminine) of their nouns; personal pronouns and a few other pronouns, for person, number, gender, and case; and verbs, for tense, aspect, mood, and the person and number of their subjects. Many verb affixes are preserved, and new compound tenses are created. | ||
== Nouns == | == Nouns == | ||
The grammar follows the general structure of most Romance languages, differing from Latin in its syntax and loss of grammatical case | The grammar follows the general structure of most Romance languages, differing from Latin in its syntax and loss of grammatical case. | ||
==== Gender==== | ==== Gender==== | ||
Every noun is either masculine or feminine, with the old Latin neuter merging with the masculine. Regarding living things, most nouns correspond with the gender of the living thing described. | Every noun is either masculine or feminine, with the old Latin neuter merging with the masculine. Regarding living things, most nouns correspond with the gender of the living thing described. | ||
Not every noun can have its gender predicted, but there are several general rules. Generally, if a word ends in ''-o, -or, -n | Not every noun can have its gender predicted, but there are several general rules. Generally, if a word ends in ''-o, -or, -n'' it is masculine. Nouns that refer to males such as ''par'' (father) are also masculine. If the word ends in ''-a, -at, -jón, -z'', then it is feminine. Words referring to females are also feminine. | ||
==== Number ==== | ==== Number ==== | ||
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!Maisón | !Maisón | ||
!Paz | !Paz | ||
!Par | |||
|- | |- | ||
!Plural | !Plural | ||
|Cibdats | |Cibdats | ||
|Pelsóns | |Pelsóns | ||
| | |Maisóns | ||
|Pajes | |Pajes | ||
|Pares | |||
|} | |} | ||
All nouns ending in '''t''' or '''n''' pluralize with a final /s/, creating consonant clusters with /t/. Nouns ending in '''z''' are changed to '''j''' and add '''-es'''. | All nouns ending in '''t''' or '''n''' pluralize with a final /s/, creating consonant clusters with /t/. Nouns ending in '''z''' are changed to '''j''' and add '''-es'''. | ||
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* ''fort'' → ''fort, fort /'' (plural) ''forts, forts'' | * ''fort'' → ''fort, fort /'' (plural) ''forts, forts'' | ||
The adjectives ''blanz'' and ''bon'' are the only exceptions to the above rule, inflecting ''blanz, blanca, blancos, blancas'' and ''bon, buina, bons, bons''. | The adjectives ''blanz'' and ''bon'' are the only exceptions to the above rule, inflecting ''blanz, blanca, blancos, blancas'' and ''bon, buina, bons, bons''. Certain ordinal numbers maintain a gender distinction as well. | ||
Similar to irregular pluralization, if the lemma of an adjective ends in ''t'', ''no, n, z'', it pluralizes according to the irregular noun rules. | Similar to irregular pluralization, if the lemma of an adjective ends in ''t'', ''no, n, z'', it pluralizes according to the irregular noun rules. | ||
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|las | |las | ||
|} | |} | ||
The masculine singular definite article has three acceptable forms. The most common are ''lo'' and ''o'', with ''o'' most common and ''lo'' used with substantive adjectives suggesting generality, or with titles (''lo senyor''). ''Lo'' is also used | The masculine singular definite article has three acceptable forms. The most common are ''lo'' and ''o'', with ''o'' most common and ''lo'' used with substantive adjectives suggesting generality, or with titles (''lo senyor''). ''Lo'' is also used with masculine names (and direct address) where English would have no article. ''La'' has this function for women. | ||
The masculine and feminine singular forms elide to <l’> before null <h> and vowels. For example, the grammatically correct form is “l’abentura” instead of suspected ''*la abentura''. | The masculine and feminine singular forms elide to <l’> before null <h> and vowels. For example, the grammatically correct form is “l’abentura” instead of suspected ''*la abentura''. | ||
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Like the definite article, the singular forms elide. The feminine changes to ''un'' before vowels. For example, the grammatically correct form of “an ear” is ''un oreya'' | Like the definite article, the singular forms elide. The feminine changes to ''un'' before vowels. For example, the grammatically correct form of “an ear” is ''un oreya'' | ||
The article is almost always carried by the noun, with the only exceptions being when other determiners modify the noun. In places where English drops the article, the article is kept. These include the subject for general nouns, objects, and almost any place where English could delete its article. For example, to write “Summer is good,” one writes “O verán | The article is almost always carried by the noun, with the only exceptions being when other determiners modify the noun. In places where English drops the article, the article is kept. These include the subject for general nouns, objects, and almost any place where English could delete its article. For example, to write “Summer is good,” one writes “O verán en bon.” | ||
=== Determiners=== | === Determiners=== | ||
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''Elo'' is used in impersonal expressions, with a similar semantic use to French ''ça'' or Spanish ''eso''. It is also used in expressions of weather, where English would use "it." It is also used in expressions where Spanish would use ''se'' and French ''un'', such as ''elo o-puide'' (we can do it, it can be done). | ''Elo'' is used in impersonal expressions, with a similar semantic use to French ''ça'' or Spanish ''eso''. It is also used in expressions of weather, where English would use "it." It is also used in expressions where Spanish would use ''se'' and French ''un'', such as ''elo o-puide'' (we can do it, it can be done). | ||
There is an inclusive-exclusive distinction in the first person plural, with ''tonos'' to include the person the speaker is addressing, and ''nosautres'' is used to exclude the person which the speaker is addressing. | There is an inclusive-exclusive distinction in the first person plural, with ''tonos'' to include the person the speaker is addressing, and ''nosautres'' is used to exclude the person which the speaker is addressing. In this grammar, ''nos'' is used to mean both subject pronouns (as they have the same verb conjugation). | ||
The comitative inflection (with me) comes from Latin *''cum (me)cum''. Similar structures exist in Ibero-Romance. | The comitative inflection (with me) comes from Latin *''cum (me)cum''. Similar structures exist in Ibero-Romance. | ||
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==== Object Pronouns ==== | ==== Object Pronouns ==== | ||
In Oscanez, the placement of object pronouns is optional in most cases. If there is one verb, the pronoun precedes it (''Jo t'aimo'', I love you). If there are more, the pronoun usually procedes, but can come after marked with a hyphen ('' | In Oscanez, the placement of object pronouns is optional in most cases. If there is one verb, the pronoun precedes it (''Jo t'aimo'', I love you). If there are more, the pronoun usually procedes all, but can come after marked with a hyphen (''Estonz dijent-te'', I am telling you). | ||
Third person object pronouns have different forms when they are used with an indirect object pronoun. They are also hyphened. | Third person object pronouns have different forms when they are used with an indirect object pronoun. They are also hyphened. | ||
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|} | |} | ||
Therefore ''Jo to-doz'' means "I give it to you." | Therefore ''Jo to-doz'' means "I give it to you." | ||
An optional way to strengthen or clarify the meaning of an indirect object is to add an ''a'' with the indirect object (Jo je doz a voté -- I give you). The ''a'' can only be used when a dative pronoun already exists. | |||
==== Reflexive Pronouns ==== | ==== Reflexive Pronouns ==== | ||
Reflexive pronouns are the same as the object pronoun, except in the third person. They are used in specific pronomial verbs which are very similar to their Romance counterparts. It is used suchː | Reflexive pronouns are the same as the object pronoun, except in the third person. They are used in specific pronomial verbs which are very similar to their Romance counterparts. It is used suchː | ||
* | * Lo Pielo se laba | Lo Pielo laba o cat (Peter washes himself | Peter washes the cat) | ||
* La Marea e | * La Marea e lo Pielo s'aiman | La Marea aima lo Pielo (Mary and Peter love each other | Mary loves Peter) | ||
* | * Lo Pielo s'ofenuí (Peter got offended) | ||
* La porta s'ablié (the door opened) | * La porta s'ablié (the door opened) | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!When | !When | ||
| | |Con? | ||
|- | |- | ||
!How | !How | ||
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There are two main relative pronouns in Oscanezː ''chen'', meaning "who" and ''che''. For non-living things the pronoun ''che'' is used. Neither have plurals. ''Che'' also means ''chen'' when it is the object of a preposition. | There are two main relative pronouns in Oscanezː ''chen'', meaning "who" and ''che''. For non-living things the pronoun ''che'' is used. Neither have plurals. ''Che'' also means ''chen'' when it is the object of a preposition. | ||
To refer to a situation or event, the pronoun ''loche'' is used (that which; what). | To refer to a situation or event, the pronoun ''loche'' is used (that which; what). Other interrogative pronouns can create subordinate clauses as well, utilizing the subjunctive mood. | ||
== Adverbs == | == Adverbs == | ||
Oscanez adverbs are very similar to English, ''muit'' ("very, much, a lot"), ''poz'' ("a little") '' | Oscanez adverbs are very similar to English, ''muit'' ("very, much, a lot"), ''poz'' ("a little") ''cosi'' ("almost"), etc. To form adverbs from adjectives, the adverbial suffix ''-ament'' is generally added to the feminine singular of the adjective, whether or not it differs from the masculine singular. This is due to the old derivation of ''ment'' (mind) being a feminine nown. Thus: | ||
* ''claro'' (clear) → ''clara'' (f) → ''clarament'' (clearly) | * ''claro'' (clear) → ''clara'' (f) → ''clarament'' (clearly) | ||
* ''nadral'' (natural) → '' | * ''nadral'' (natural) → ''nadralament'' (naturally) | ||
* ''trist'' (sad) → '' | * ''trist'' (sad) → ''tristament'' (sadly) | ||
The adjectives ''bon'' (good) and ''malo'' (bad) have irregular adverbial forms: ''bien'' (well) and ''mal'' (badly), respectively. ''Mal'' also has the adverb ''malament'', which means "evilly." | The adjectives ''bon'' (good) and ''malo'' (bad) have irregular adverbial forms: ''bien'' (well) and ''mal'' (badly), respectively. ''Mal'' also has the adverb ''malament'', which means "evilly." | ||
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Some adverbs simply use the masculine singular form to create adverbial meanings. ''Muit'' is a good example. | Some adverbs simply use the masculine singular form to create adverbial meanings. ''Muit'' is a good example. | ||
In series of consecutive adverbs that would each end in ''- | In series of consecutive adverbs that would each end in ''-ament'' on their own, the phrase is restructured totally. | ||
* ''con | * ''con ment rapida e facil'' -- "quickly and easily" | ||
There are also a wide variety of compound adverbial phrases in Oscanez, such as ''pol tot parts (''everywhere) | There are also a wide variety of compound adverbial phrases in Oscanez, such as ''pol tot parts (''everywhere) | ||
As with adjectives, the comparative of adverbs is almost always formed by placing ''mes'' (more) or ''menos'' (less) before the adverb. Thus ''mes | As with adjectives, the comparative of adverbs is almost always formed by placing ''mes'' (more) or ''menos'' (less) before the adverb. Thus ''mes tristament'' (more sadly). The superlative is formed by placing the article ''lo'' before the comparative. As with their corresponding adjectival forms, ''bien'' (well) and ''mal'' (badly) have irregular comparative forms (''meyor'' (better) and ''pior'' (worse), respectively). | ||
== Verbs == | == Verbs == | ||
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In general, ''O present'' is used forː | In general, ''O present'' is used forː | ||
* events happening in the present -- | * events happening in the present -- Nosautres ''vibimos'' na cibdat (We ''live'' in the city). | ||
* habitual actions -- Jo ''trayo'' pol las nuits (I ''work'' at night) | * habitual actions -- Jo ''trayo'' pol las nuits (I ''work'' at night) | ||
* current states of being and conditions -- Agora, ''te | * current states of being and conditions -- Agora, ''te remáns'' con lo Ayejandro? (Now, do you ''stay'' with Alexander?) | ||
* actions planned to occur in the future -- El ''estuja'' na univelsidat l'anyo projimo (He ''is studying'' in university next year) | * actions planned to occur in the future -- El ''estuja'' na univelsidat l'anyo projimo (He ''is studying'' in university next year) | ||
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* Z-stems are a verb type whose infinitive stem can end in <j> or <c>. In -''er'' verbs, Z-stems have the same 3rd and 1st person singular. | * Z-stems are a verb type whose infinitive stem can end in <j> or <c>. In -''er'' verbs, Z-stems have the same 3rd and 1st person singular. | ||
*Inchoatives are ''-el'' verbs descending from verbs with the Latin infix ''-sc-'', denoting a beginning. Such verbs in Oscanez are cognate to Spanish ''-ecer'', and Portuguese -''escer'' verb types. | *Inchoatives are ''-el'' verbs descending from verbs with the Latin infix ''-sc-'', denoting a beginning. Such verbs in Oscanez are cognate to Spanish ''-ecer'', and Portuguese -''escer'' verb types. | ||
If any of these irregularities cause the stress to fall on the last syllable, an accent is placed. | |||
Other notable irregulars are in the following chartː | Other notable irregulars are in the following chartː | ||
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|+Irregular Present in Oscanez | |+Irregular Present in Oscanez | ||
! | ! | ||
!Dijel | !Dijel | ||
!Dar | !Dar | ||
!Fajel | !Fajel | ||
!Ir | !Ir | ||
!Poder | !Poder | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|Jo | |Jo | ||
|Diz | |Diz | ||
|Doz | |Doz | ||
|Faz | |Faz | ||
|Voz | |Voz | ||
|Puiso | |Puiso | ||
| Line 965: | Line 964: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Tu | |Tu | ||
|Dijes | |Dijes | ||
|Das | |Das | ||
|Fajes | |Fajes | ||
|Vas | |Vas | ||
|Puides | |Puides | ||
| Line 977: | Line 974: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|El / Ela / Voté | |El / Ela / Voté | ||
|Dije | |Dije | ||
|Da | |Da | ||
|Faje | |Faje | ||
|Va | |Va | ||
|Puide | |Puide | ||
| Line 989: | Line 984: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Nos | |Nos | ||
|Dijimos | |Dijimos | ||
|Damos | |Damos | ||
|Fajimos | |Fajimos | ||
|Alamos | |Alamos | ||
|Podemos | |Podemos | ||
| Line 1,001: | Line 994: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Vos | |Vos | ||
|Dijiz | |Dijiz | ||
|Daz | |Daz | ||
|Fajiz | |Fajiz | ||
|Alaz | |Alaz | ||
|Podez | |Podez | ||
| Line 1,013: | Line 1,004: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Elos / Elas / Vostés | |Elos / Elas / Vostés | ||
|Digon | |Digon | ||
|Dan | |Dan | ||
|Fagon | |Fagon | ||
|Van | |Van | ||
|Puison | |Puison | ||
| Line 1,024: | Line 1,013: | ||
|Vienon | |Vienon | ||
|} | |} | ||
As evidenced by a a few verbs above, in Oscanez short latin ''e'' and ''o'' diphthongized into ''ie'' and ''ui'' respectively. Over time, these developments became regularized and only apply to those few verbs and the isolated nouns with those changes. | As evidenced by a a few verbs above, in Oscanez short latin ''e'' and ''o'' diphthongized into ''ie'' and ''ui'' respectively. Over time, these developments became regularized and only apply to those few verbs and the isolated nouns with those changes, and are mostly marked on the infinitive as well. | ||
=== Future and Conditional / ''O Futuro Simplice E | === Future and Conditional / ''O Futuro Simplice E O Condijonal''=== | ||
The non-periphrastic <u>future</u> in Oscanez refers to events which areː | The non-periphrastic <u>future</u> in Oscanez refers to events which areː | ||
* probable or uncertain actions in the future -- Elo ''xoberá'' est nuit (It might ''rain'' tonight) | * probable or uncertain actions in the future -- Elo ''xoberá'' est nuit (It might ''rain'' tonight) | ||
* occurring in the future, with a specific lack of habituality -- Jo ''veajaré'' a París la semaina projima (I will ''travel'' to Paris next week) | * occurring in the future, with a specific lack of habituality -- Jo ''veajaré'' a París la semaina projima (I will ''travel'' to Paris next week) | ||
* commands and obligations more strong than the imperative -- Vos '' | * commands and obligations more strong than the imperative -- Vos ''venirez'' cras (You will ''come'' tomorrow) | ||
The conditional is an innovation of the Romance languages not found in Classical Latin. It is used forː | The conditional is an innovation of the Romance languages not found in Classical Latin. It is used forː | ||
| Line 1,106: | Line 1,095: | ||
It expressesː | It expressesː | ||
* habitual or repetitive action in the past -- | * habitual or repetitive action in the past -- Con j'''era'' rabaz... (When I ''was'' a boy...) | ||
* an action interrupted by another action as in conjunction -- | * an action interrupted by another action as in conjunction -- Díntel jo ''correa'', o-oí (While I was ''running'', I heard him) | ||
* general description of the past -- Elo ''tronaia'' (It was ''thundering)'' | * general description of the past -- Elo ''tronaia'' (It was ''thundering)'' | ||
| Line 1,148: | Line 1,137: | ||
* used as a singular act with a definite beginning and end -- ''Trayemos'' nel oficín pol dos semains (We ''worked'' in the office for two weeks) | * used as a singular act with a definite beginning and end -- ''Trayemos'' nel oficín pol dos semains (We ''worked'' in the office for two weeks) | ||
* used in a narrative as an interruption -- Jo correa | * used in a narrative as an interruption -- Jo correa con el me ''trobó'' (I was running when he ''found'' me) | ||
* used as a description / action fully completed -- Voté ''nacié'' nel 1977 (You ''were'' ''born'' in 1977) | * used as a description / action fully completed -- Voté ''nacié'' nel 1977 (You ''were'' ''born'' in 1977) | ||
Because of this, the verbs ''saber, conocel, chelel, | Because of this, the verbs ''saber, conocel, chelel, voyer, poder,'' and ''deer'' are translated differently from an English simple past. In the preterite of Oscanez, since the verb is fully completed and has its own action unrelated to any other at any time, the verb "to know" would be translated as "he found out." That change is an act of knowing that is fully completed. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+Irregular Changes in Meaning in the Preterite | |+Irregular Changes in Meaning in the Preterite | ||
| Line 1,235: | Line 1,224: | ||
! | ! | ||
!Venir | !Venir | ||
!Chelel | !Chelel | ||
!Dijel | !Dijel | ||
| Line 1,248: | Line 1,236: | ||
!Jo | !Jo | ||
|Vinye | |Vinye | ||
|Chisi | |Chisi | ||
|Diji | |Diji | ||
| Line 1,261: | Line 1,248: | ||
!Tu | !Tu | ||
|Vinyiste | |Vinyiste | ||
|Chisiste | |Chisiste | ||
|Dijiste | |Dijiste | ||
| Line 1,274: | Line 1,260: | ||
!El / Ela / Vostet | !El / Ela / Vostet | ||
|Vinye | |Vinye | ||
|Chise | |Chise | ||
|Dije | |Dije | ||
| Line 1,287: | Line 1,272: | ||
!Nos | !Nos | ||
|Vinyimos | |Vinyimos | ||
|Chisimos | |Chisimos | ||
|Dijimos | |Dijimos | ||
| Line 1,300: | Line 1,284: | ||
!Vos | !Vos | ||
|Vinyístez | |Vinyístez | ||
|Chisístez | |Chisístez | ||
|Dijístez | |Dijístez | ||
| Line 1,313: | Line 1,296: | ||
!Elos / Elas / Vostetes | !Elos / Elas / Vostetes | ||
|Vinyeron | |Vinyeron | ||
|Chiseron | |Chiseron | ||
|Dijeron | |Dijeron | ||
| Line 1,326: | Line 1,308: | ||
The verbs ''esir'' and ''estar'' are also irregular in the preterite, but their conjugations are shown in the copular section. | The verbs ''esir'' and ''estar'' are also irregular in the preterite, but their conjugations are shown in the copular section. | ||
=== Compound Tenses and Periphrastic Constructions / ''Tempos Perifrastijos''=== | === Compound Tenses and Periphrastic Constructions / ''Tempos Perifrastijos''=== | ||
| Line 1,354: | Line 1,337: | ||
!Poner | !Poner | ||
|- | |- | ||
|abelt | |abelt (abelts) | ||
|escrit | |escrit (escrits) | ||
|fait | |fait (faits) | ||
|post | |post (posts) | ||
|} | |} | ||
| Line 1,408: | Line 1,391: | ||
''Seghir'' has a meaning of "continues Xing" or "keeps Xing." It is used in the imperfect or present tense only. | ''Seghir'' has a meaning of "continues Xing" or "keeps Xing." It is used in the imperfect or present tense only. | ||
Like ''seghir, ir'' is only used with the imperfect and present tenses. It means "goes around Xing." | Like ''seghir, ir'' is only used with the imperfect and present tenses. It means "goes around Xing." | ||
=== Subjunctive / ''O subjuntif''=== | === Subjunctive / ''O subjuntif''=== | ||
The Oscanez subjunctive most often, although not exclusively, is in subordinate clauses, introduced by ''che'' (that). It is used mostly with verbs or adverbs expressing desire, doubt, hypothetical statements or eventuality; it may also express an order in the third person, and in all negatives. There are several set phrases in Oscanez which take a subjunctive. | The Oscanez subjunctive most often, although not exclusively, is in subordinate clauses, introduced by ''che'' (that). It is used mostly with verbs or adverbs expressing desire, doubt, hypothetical statements or eventuality; it may also express an order in the third person, and in all negatives. There are several set adverbial phrases in Oscanez which take a subjunctive. | ||
==== Present Subjunctive / ''O Present del Subjuntif''==== | ==== Present Subjunctive / ''O Present del Subjuntif''==== | ||
| Line 1,419: | Line 1,402: | ||
* desiderative or jussive expressions -- (Che) elo ''xoba'' (Let (May) it ''rain'') | * desiderative or jussive expressions -- (Che) elo ''xoba'' (Let (May) it ''rain'') | ||
*''Nos'' or ''Voté'' imperatives, and negative imperatives -- | *''Nos'' or ''Voté'' imperatives, and negative imperatives -- N'''alen'' votésǃ (Do not goǃ) | ||
*concessive clauses -- Ena jo ''sia'' trist... (Although I am sad..) | *concessive clauses -- Ena jo ''sia'' trist... (Although I am sad..) | ||
* | *question with a subordinate clause -- Pensa ch'ela ''esté'' ayegre? (Does he think that she ''is'' happy?) | ||
*indirect questions -- Se on tu ''estés'' (I know where you ''are'') | |||
**This use is very productive in Oscanez, where the conjunction ''polché'' takes an indicative if it means "because" and a subjunctive when it means "why." | |||
*expressions of doubt, denial or uncertainty -- No creo ch'el ''esté'' na cibdat (I don't think he ''is'' in the city) | *expressions of doubt, denial or uncertainty -- No creo ch'el ''esté'' na cibdat (I don't think he ''is'' in the city) | ||
*impersonal expressions without certainty -- Elo e important ch'ela ''ale'' a l'escuila (It is important that she ''go'' to school) | *impersonal expressions without certainty -- Elo e important ch'ela ''ale'' a l'escuila (It is important that she ''go'' to school) | ||
*indirect commands, recommendations or desires -- Oro che Deos nuis ''de'' salut (I pray that God ''give'' us health) | *indirect commands, recommendations or desires -- Oro che Deos nuis ''de'' salut (I pray that God ''give'' us health) | ||
*expressions with emotion -- Temo che l'ejercit ''venya'' (I fear that the army ''is coming'') | *expressions with emotion -- Temo che l'ejercit ''venya'' (I fear that the army ''is coming'') | ||
*with the particle ''ualá -- ''Ualá ''puida'' nadar (Hopefully he ''can'' swim) | |||
*with the particle '' | |||
The forms of the subjunctive are mostly irregular, with a few changes that must be memorized. | The forms of the subjunctive are mostly irregular, with a few changes that must be memorized. | ||
| Line 1,552: | Line 1,535: | ||
|Sachemos<sup>1</sup> | |Sachemos<sup>1</sup> | ||
|} | |} | ||
1. The orthographical change to preserve the /k/ sound is to insert a <h> before the /e/ vowel. A similar process occurs in other Romance orthographies, and the process also happens with <g> (''cargar'' becomes ''carghe).'' | 1. The orthographical change to preserve the /k/ sound is to insert a <h> before the /e/ vowel. A similar process occurs in other Romance orthographies, and the process also happens with <g> (''cargar'' becomes ''carghe).' | ||
' | |||
==== Future Subjunctive / ''O Futuro del Subjuntif''==== | |||
The future subjunctive is a new periphrastic tense which developed from the present subjunctive forms of ''ir''. It is used for: | |||
*conditions where the main clause is in the future tense or a command -- Si tu ''ales falar con ela'', di-a.. (If you talk to her, tell her...) | |||
*with certain adverbial conjunctions to show anticipation where there is a future main clause -- Remanerá ací atá ''ale voyer'' partir (He will stay here until he ''wants'' to leave) | |||
*in conjunction with negative main clauses where the subordinate clause implies uncertainty -- Jo no se poz ch'ela ''ale'' fajel (I don't know what she ''might do'') | |||
The future subjunctive is formed with the forms of ''ir'' in the present subjunctive, as well as the infinitive of the verb. | |||
==== Imperfect Subjunctive / ''L'imperfeit del Subjuntif''==== | ==== Imperfect Subjunctive / ''L'imperfeit del Subjuntif''==== | ||
| Line 1,560: | Line 1,553: | ||
*concessive clauses -- Ena jo ''fuis'' trist... (Although I was sad..) | *concessive clauses -- Ena jo ''fuis'' trist... (Although I was sad..) | ||
* | *questions with a subordinate clause -- Pensó ch'ela ''estejís'' ayegre? (Did he think that she ''was'' happy?) | ||
*expressions of doubt, denial or uncertainty -- No creea ch'el '' | *indirect questions -- Sopi loche ''ficís'' (I found out what he was ''doing'') | ||
*expressions of doubt, denial or uncertainty -- No creea ch'el ''estejís'' na cibdat (I didn't think that he ''was'' in the city) | |||
*impersonal expressions without certainty -- Elo era important ch'ela ''fuis'' a l'escuila (It was important that she ''go'' to school) | *impersonal expressions without certainty -- Elo era important ch'ela ''fuis'' a l'escuila (It was important that she ''go'' to school) | ||
*indirect commands, recommendations or desires -- Oraia che Deos nuis ''das'' salut (I prayed that God ''give'' us health) | *indirect commands, recommendations or desires -- Oraia che Deos nuis ''das'' salut (I prayed that God would ''give'' us health) | ||
*expressions with emotion -- Temói che l'ejercit '' | *expressions with emotion -- Temói che l'ejercit ''vinyís'' (I feared that the army ''was coming'') | ||
*in conditions where the main clause is in the conditional -- Si ''jo fuis'', ela dormirea bien (If I were going, she would sleep well) | *in conditions where the main clause is in the conditional -- Si ''jo fuis'', ela dormirea bien (If I were going, she would sleep well) | ||
*with the | *with the interjection ''Ualá --'' Ualá ''pudís'' nadar (Hopefully he ''was able'' swim) | ||
The imperfect subjunctive is a regular tense, with the same endings for all conjugations. Verbs irregular in the preterite are irregular in this tense as well. | The imperfect subjunctive is a regular tense, with the same endings for all conjugations. Verbs irregular in the preterite are irregular in this tense as well. | ||
| Line 1,609: | Line 1,603: | ||
In the subjunctive mood, the verb ''haber'' can be conjugated to show the perfect aspect, exactly like the indicative. It only has six forms, present and imperfect. These are combined with the past participle to create the new tense. This form is important to keep the sequence of tenses in the subjunctive, which is much stricter than the sequence of tenses in the indicative. | In the subjunctive mood, the verb ''haber'' can be conjugated to show the perfect aspect, exactly like the indicative. It only has six forms, present and imperfect. These are combined with the past participle to create the new tense. This form is important to keep the sequence of tenses in the subjunctive, which is much stricter than the sequence of tenses in the indicative. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+Sequence of Tenses | |+Sequence of Tenses in the Subjunctive | ||
!Main Verb | !Main Verb | ||
!Anterior Relationship | !Anterior Relationship | ||
| Line 1,618: | Line 1,612: | ||
|Perfect | |Perfect | ||
|Present | |Present | ||
|Future | |Future | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Any Past Tense (and the conditional) | !Any Past Tense (and the conditional) | ||
| Line 1,633: | Line 1,627: | ||
* As a command or order -- ''escribe-o'' agoraǃ (''write'' it nowǃ) | * As a command or order -- ''escribe-o'' agoraǃ (''write'' it nowǃ) | ||
The perfect is also used as a command, but always with a deadline. It is similar to English "have it done by X." | The perfect is also used as a command, but always with a deadline. It is similar to English "have it done by X." It is almost always introduced with ''che''. | ||
* '' | * ''Che haias trayat'' cras (work by tomorrow) | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| Line 1,662: | Line 1,656: | ||
The ''tu'' imperative is always the 3rd person singular indicative present of the verb, and the ''vos'' is the infinitive. Others use the subjunctive form (and the perfect uses the subjunctive of ''haber''). If reflexive, the pronoun is put with a hyphen at the end (of ''haber'' in the perfect subjunctive too). | The ''tu'' imperative is always the 3rd person singular indicative present of the verb, and the ''vos'' is the infinitive. Others use the subjunctive form (and the perfect uses the subjunctive of ''haber''). If reflexive, the pronoun is put with a hyphen at the end (of ''haber'' in the perfect subjunctive too). | ||
There are five irregular imperatives, the verbs ''esir, dijel, fajel, voyer,'' and all -(''d'')''ujel'' verbs. They are ''di, fa, vol, -''(''d'')'' | There are five irregular imperatives, the verbs ''esir, dijel, fajel, voyer,'' and all -(''d'')''ujel'' verbs. They are ''di, fa, vol, -''(''d'')''ú. Esir'' imperatives are outlined in its section below. | ||
== Syntax == | == Syntax == | ||
Oscanez is a strong SVO language with some variation for style and emphasis. It is also generally head-initial and right branching. Subjects are optional and in most cases discouraged from using. If the subject has been introduced in a previous sentence and it is clear that it is the same, the pronoun is dropped. Objects are to the left of the verb, with the indirect and then direct object. | Oscanez is a strong SVO language with some variation for style and emphasis. It is also generally head-initial and right branching. Subjects are optional and in most cases discouraged from using. If the subject has been introduced in a previous sentence and it is clear that it is the same, the pronoun is dropped. Objects are to the left of the verb, with the indirect and then direct object. | ||
A dependent clause is marked with ''che'' after the completion of the first. Generally these have different subjects (with verbs of influence and the subjunctive), but may have the same (I think that I know -- ''Penso che | A dependent clause is marked with ''che'' after the completion of the first. Generally these have different subjects (with verbs of influence and the subjunctive), but may have the same (I think that I know -- ''Penso che saba''). | ||
Passives are created with the conjugated form of ''esir'' and the past participle, but an impersonal (we speak, it is spoken, they speak) is formed with the third person conjugation with the reflexive pronoun. | Passives are created with the conjugated form of ''esir'' and the past participle, but an impersonal (we speak, it is spoken, they speak) is formed with the third person conjugation with the reflexive pronoun. | ||
| Line 1,688: | Line 1,682: | ||
== Irregular Verbs == | == Irregular Verbs == | ||
=== Copulas === | === Copulas / Irregular Verbs === | ||
==== Esir ==== | ==== Esir ==== | ||
| Line 1,782: | Line 1,776: | ||
|} | |} | ||
Esir is generally used as a personal linking verb describing occupation / profession, nationality / origin, personal (permanent) adjectives. When used as a simple linking verb, ''esir'' does not take articles. Generally, ''estar'' is used in emotional or physical condition, but ''esir'' can be used for '''permanent''' condition. For example, to say “She is a beautiful woman” with the specific connotation of this woman always being beautiful, one says “E muyer bela.” | Esir is generally used as a personal linking verb describing occupation / profession, nationality / origin, personal (permanent) adjectives. When used as a simple linking verb, ''esir'' does not take articles. Generally, ''estar'' is used in emotional or physical condition, but ''esir'' can be used for '''permanent''' condition. For example, to say “She is a beautiful woman” with the specific connotation of this woman always being beautiful, one says “E muyer bela.” | ||
==== Estar ==== | ==== Estar ==== | ||
| Line 1,876: | Line 1,868: | ||
|estén | |estén | ||
|} | |} | ||
''Estar'' is generally used whenever ''esir'' would not be used. It is used in all progressive tenses with the gerundive, and in time, emotional or physical conditions, location | ''Estar'' is generally used whenever ''esir'' would not be used. It is used in all progressive tenses with the gerundive, and in time, emotional or physical conditions, location. For example, to say, “She is beautiful today,” one says “''Está bela huie.”'' | ||
==== Haber ==== | ==== Haber ==== | ||
| Line 1,968: | Line 1,960: | ||
|haian | |haian | ||
|} | |} | ||
''Haber'' cannot mean "to have" in the same way as in English (''tener'' functions this way), and is used in special idiomatic expressions. These deal with temporal expressions ("it is three o'clock" -- ''elo ha tres horas''), impersonal expressions of amount ("there is a person" -- ''elo i ha una pelsona'') and expressions of hunger, shame, fear, thirst, warmth, cold, and tiredness ("I am hungry" -- ''J'he fanye''). | |||
==== Ir ==== | ==== Ir ==== | ||
| Line 2,075: | Line 2,069: | ||
| Cheers! ||Salutǃ | | Cheers! ||Salutǃ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| How are you? ||Como estás | | How are you? ||Como estás? | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Good morning! || | | Good morning! ||Bondeaǃ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Good afternoonǃ | |Good afternoonǃ | ||
| Line 2,086: | Line 2,080: | ||
| Good night! ||Buina nuitǃ | | Good night! ||Buina nuitǃ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Have a nice day! ||Tenya un bon dea | | Have a nice day! ||Tien / Tenya un bon dea! | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Enjoy the meal! || | | Enjoy the meal! ||Bon aprofeit! | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Goodbye! ||Ajósǃ | | Goodbye! ||Ajósǃ | ||
| Line 2,094: | Line 2,088: | ||
| Good luck! ||Buina sortǃ | | Good luck! ||Buina sortǃ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| I love you || | | I love you ||Jo t'aimo | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Welcome [to...] || | | Welcome [to...] ||Bienbenit(ida) [a...] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Please ||Pol fabor | | Please ||Pol fabor | ||
| Line 2,112: | Line 2,106: | ||
| How much? / How many? ||Cuant? / Cuants? | | How much? / How many? ||Cuant? / Cuants? | ||
|- | |- | ||
| What is your name? ||Como te | | What is your name? ||Como te xaman? Como je xaman a voté? | ||
|- | |- | ||
| My name is ... ||Me | | My name is ... ||Me xaman... | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Yes, I understand. ||Si, j'entén. | | Yes, I understand. ||Si, j'entén. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| I do not understand. ||Jo n'entén | | I do not understand. ||Jo n'entén | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Do you speak English? ||Falas anglés? Fala anglés? | | Do you speak English? ||Falas anglés? / Fala anglés? | ||
|- | |- | ||
| I do not understand Oscanez. ||Jo n'entén l'oscanez. | | I do not understand Oscanez. ||Jo n'entén l'oscanez. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Help me! || | | Help me! ||Ajuda-meǃ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Where is the bathroom? ||On están o banyo? | | Where is the bathroom? ||On están o banyo? | ||
| Line 2,132: | Line 2,126: | ||
| The bill, please. ||La conta, pol fabor. | | The bill, please. ||La conta, pol fabor. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Oscanez is a beautiful language. ||L'oscanez | | Oscanez is a beautiful language. ||L'oscanez en una bela yenua. | ||
|}<references /> | |}<references /> | ||
[[Category:Languages]] | |||
[[Category:Conlangs]] | |||
[[Category:A_posteriori]] | |||
[[Category:Indo-European_languages]] | |||
[[Category:Romance]] | |||