Peshpeg

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Introduction

The Peshpeg language, or Peshpeg humbi todak inlak "true humans speak this way", is a highly endangered language in the valleys of the Kilmay Rī Mountains and the prefectures of south-central Minhay. The language is considered moribund: according to the last census, only about ninety fluent speakers remain, all older than sixty years. Younger generations speak only Minhast, from either the Wolf Speaker, Stone Speaker, or City Speaker dialects. Efforts to revitalize the language have been largely unsuccessful; with the exception of the City Speakers, most Minhast are either apathetic or even actively hostile to revitalization efforts. Social and economic discrimination towards the Peshpegs has only accelerated the decline of the language.

Peshpeg is classified as a language isolate. Any similarities to the Minhast language are due to language contact, with most of the influences being unidirectional; only a handful of Peshpeg words, most of them related to the fauna and flora of their original homeland, have been adopted by the Wolf Speaker and Stone Speaker dialects. However, Minhast has had an enormous impact on the Peshpeg language; close to 70% of the Peshpeg lexicon comes from Minhast, the original base-10 numerical system has been supplanted by the vegisimal system of the dominant language, and most noticeably the original morphosyntactic alignment has shifted from a nominative-accusative type to a split ergative one, with the evolution of the ergative subsystem clearly driven by Minhast's ergative-absolutive alignment. Some linguists have explored the possibility of a relationship with Ín Duári, another endangered, non-Minhast language, but plausible evidence for such a relationship has not been demonstrated.

Peshpeg is classified as an SOV language. The language apparently had an extensive vowel harmony system, which has been preserved to some extent in its present-day form. Aggluginative and fusional features appear in various areas of the grammar.

The language is head initial: modifiers such as adjectives usually follow their head noun; prepositions are used in adpositional phrases, and relative clauses follow the NP they modify, attributes associated with head-initial languages. Once again, however, the influence of Minhast has introduced a certain level of fluidity, such as numerical modifiers precede their noun heads; this was probably facilitated by the replacement of the original decimal system with Minhast's vegisimal system.


Phonology

Orthography

Fragmentary inscriptions, thus far undeciphered, have been found in ruins scattered throughout Nasket Prefecture in Dog Speaker Country. This area is known for pre-Minhast settlements, and was occupied by the Peshpegs according to their oral history before they were displaced by Minhast invaders. However, the Ín Duári also claim the area as part of their original homeland. The heritage of the inscriptions thus remains in doubt.

The Širkattarnaft was eventually adopted by the Peshpegs, to which they added diacritics and additional vowel signs to represent sounds not represented in the original orthography. During the late 1870's, an Evangelist missionary, Aldous Green Huntly, sneaked into Minhay aboard a Chinese merchant vessel returning from the United States. Hounded by hostile Gull Speakers who discovered him in the port city of Kissamut, he fled west, skirting around the major villages in Dog Speaker Country until he stumbled upon a Peshpeg settlement. There, he was welcomed, and he began to preach and he successfully converted many of the villagers to the Evangelical sect. He transcribed their language into a modified Latin script in order to translate the Bible to them. The script came to be known as the Evanjelastarin or Evanjelastarün, and soon this script was adopted by Peshpegs throughout Minhay, almost displacing the Širkattarnaft.


Evanjelastarin Characters
a á, e é, i í, o ó, ö (oe), u ú, ü (ue), b, p, f, v, d, t, g, k, c (ch), j, n, m, l, r, z, zh, s, sh, h, y

Consonants

Peshpeg Consonantal Inventory
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Laryngeal
Nasal m n
Plosive p b t d k g ʔ
Affricates t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Fricative f v s z ʃ ʒ h
Approximants j
Flap ɾ
Lateral l

Vowels

  Front Near- front Central Near- back Back
Close
Blank vowel trapezoid.svg
i
u
y
ɪ
o
ɛ
œ
a
  Near-close
Close-mid
Mid
Open-mid
Near-open
Open

Prosody

Stress

Nouns are generally stressed on the penult or antipenult syllable, but a number of them receive final-syllable stress. The romanized orthography marks final stress with an acute accent. Antepenultimate stress occurs if the syllable is closed, otherwise the word is pronounced on the penult syllable.

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

Peshpeg was originally a nominative-accusative language. The language also had several noun classes that eventually collapsed into the present three-way declension system based on natural gender, animacy, and countability and concreteness. Today, the language has developed into a split ergative system, based on the animacy hierarchy of the noun class system. Nominative-accusative marking appears in first second pronominal forms, and Class I pronominal forms. These pronominal forms lie on the upper end of the animacy hierarchy, while all other forms are considered low animacy forms. Class II nouns were originally indeclinable and fell lower on the animacy scale, although they displayed some level of agency and thus took different affixes to denote their noun class. As Minhast expanded into Peshpeg-speaking lands, agent marking developed in these lower animacy nouns through the incorporation of the Minhast ergative marker =de, realized in Peshpeg Class II nouns as the submorpheme -d-. Agency for low animacy nouns is considered a marked condition, hence this explains the use of ergative morphology to indicate the marked condition. The unmarked form was reinterpreted as the absolutive case.

As for the Class III nouns, they remained unmarked for both case and number. This is unsurprising as these nouns are inherently uncountable, and statistically speaking, their role as agents is an uncommon, if not rare occurrence. The nominative-accusative marking of Class I nouns and the ergative marking of Class II nouns are sufficient to disambiguate the semantic role a Class III noun when it is a core argument. Ambiguity arises when two Class III nouns occupy both agent and patient roles in a transitive clause. In those cases, it is usually assumed that if one of the nouns was mentioned in discourse before the other, that noun functions as the agent. This indicates that in clause chains, Peshpeg employs an S/A pivot, in contrast to Minhast's S/O pivot.

Nouns

[stub]

Noun Classes

Peshpeg nouns fall into three declensions, or classes, simply called Class I, Class II, and Class III. The noun classes roughly coincide with natural gender and/or animacy.

  • Class I nouns,
  1. Preserve the original nominative-accusative system.
  2. Typically are male humans, or consist of nouns that are associated with male attributes, particularly weapons. Divinities, supernatural events, wolves, horses, and moving bodies of water also fall within this class.
  • Class II nouns
  1. Morphosyntactically take ergative-absolutive pattern: they take the ergative -du/-dumu markers, the -d- submorpheme etymologically derived from the Minhast ergative clitic =de.
  2. Follow along biological gender for female humans, and neuter animate count nouns, animals, except reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Some inanimate nouns are also found in this category, such as trees, household items e.g. tonkul "crockpot", or farming implements, e.g. vulpat "hoe".
  3. These nouns are lower in the animacy hierarchy than the Class I nouns.
  • Class III nouns
  1. Occupy the lowest level in the animacy hierarchy
  2. Take no marking for case or number.
  3. Nouns falling in this class include certain body parts, non-mammalian/non-avian animals, most plants, mass nouns, inanimate objects, and abstract nouns.

Case and Number

Peshpeg displays a three-way split in its morphological alignment, reflecting the nominal system's animacy hierarchy. The nominal class system follows a nominative-accusative pattern among Class I nouns, an ergative-absolutive pattern in Class II nouns, and a direct alignment in its Class III nouns. The nominative-accusative pattern marks direct objects with the submorpheme -j-. The ergative-absolutive system is distinguished by the submorpheme -d- for ergative arguments. The direct alignment system has zero-marking on all core arguments, and makes no number distinction at all.

  Class I Class II Class III
  Sg Pl Sg Pl Sg Pl
Ergative -du -dunu -ri
-rin, -rün
*-in, -ün
Nominative-Absolutive -∅ -mu -∅ -na
Accusative -jor -jomu

*The -in allomorph of the Class III suffix is favoured when the preceding phoneme is a palatalized consonant.

Kodzorin iruni daltashi.
'kodzoɾɪn ɪɾ'uni dal'taʃi
kodzorin-∅ i-ru-ni daltashi
hammer_PN.CL1.S-NOM PST-go-CL1.S alone

Kodzorin went unaccompanied.
Torzha irumvi daltashi.
torzha i-ru-mvi daltashi
girl.CL2.S.ABS PST-go-CL2.S alone

The girl went unaccompanied.
Torzhadu Kodzorinjor gumbiri jorlu.
torzha-du kodzorin-jor gumbiri jorlu.
girl.CL2.S-ERG hammer_PN.CL1.S-ACC AUX.CL2.S.PST hit

The girl struck Kodzorin.
Golahátin irunki daltashi.
golahát-in i-ru-nki daltashi
in_duari-CL3 PST-go-CL3.S alone

The Ín Duári (man) went unaccompanied.
Irudak gajak gambi.
i-ru-dak gajak gambi
PST-go-INF foolish AUX.CL3.S.PRS

Going there was foolish (lit. "Having gone there is foolish.")

Plurality is marked on Class I and II nouns with a suffix beginning with nasal, -m- for Class I nouns, and -n- for Class II nouns, e.g:

Peshpegmu torzhana humbiri jorlu
peshpeg-mu torzha-na humbi-ri jorlu.
human.CL1-NOM.PL woman.CL2-ABS.PL AUX.CL1.P-PST hit

The men struck the women.

Number marking in Class III nouns is neutralized, e.g:

Tazhin abimon kor vendakrin dezhak gambi.
tazh-rin abi=mon kor vendan-rin dezhak gambi
obedience-CL3 all=CONN virtue-CL3 supercede AUX.CLS3.PRS

Obedience outweighs all (other) virtues.


Postpositional Clitics
Case Postposition
Dative-Allative =āran
=(a)ran
Benefactive =nī
=ni
Ablative =yār
=yar
Locative =kī
=ki
Inessive ** =kīr
=kir
Instrumental =pār
=par
Comitative =kān
=kan
Malefactive =daħ
=dāħš
=dāš
Vocative (Intimate) =iyye

Pronouns

Independent Pronouns

The independent pronouns show a consistent ergative-absolutive pattern, identifiable by the suffix -du attached to the absolutive form of the pronoun. The suffix is derived from the Minhast ergative clitic =de, incorporated into the language sometime during the start of the Wolf Speaker invasions in the early to mid 1700's. This apparently led to the rearrangement of the verbal system and shift from its original nominative-accusative alignment to its present-day morphosyntactic alignment.

Postpositions

Numbers

Verbs

Peshpeg verbs are divided into two classes, compound verbs, and synthetic verbs. Compound verbs consist of an inflected auxiliary followed by a verbal noun, although the verbal noun may precede the auxiliary. In contrast, synthetic verbs encode all verbal inflections on the verb root itself. Of these two classes, the compound verbs are the predominant class.

Compound Verbs

The auxiliary -mb- of compound verbs developed from the fusion of a bound pronominal marker to the connective particle mon (possibly derived from the Minhast connective min), which is attached to the suffix -bi1, plus a tense-aspect marker. The verbal noun contains the semantic content of the verb phrase.

Orun mon golach on nodórji gomboji uzan.
/'oɾum mon 'golatʃon nod'oɾd͡ʒi 'gombod͡ʒi 'uzan/
orun=mon golach=mon nodor-ji gor-mon-bi-ji uzan
many CONN Ín_Duári CONN to.serve-NMLZ.AGT CL2-LOC-FUT riot

Many of the Ín Duári slaves will revolt.

If the verb is transitive, an object agreement clitic attaches to the beginning of the auxiliary, before the initial pronominal affix which occupies the subject position. In the example below, the object clitic gi= is obligatory, even if an overt object (e.g. tonkül "crockpot") is expressed:

Tonkül gisumbiri yilár.
/'toŋkyl gɪ'sumbɪɾi jɪ'la:ɾ/
tonkül gi=su-mon-bi-ri yilár
crockpot CL2.PL=1S-CONN-LOC-PST break

I broke the crockpots (lit. "Crockpot them-I-of-in-past breakage")
Norvadu tonkül gugombiri yilár.
/'norvadu 'toŋkyl gu'gombɪɾi jɪ'la:ɾ/
norva-du tonkül gi=gu-mon-bi-ri yilár
PN.CL2-ERG crockpot CL2.PL=CL2.S-CONN-LOC-PST break

Norva broke the crockpots (lit. "Crockpot them-she-of-in-past breakage")
Tovavat tonkül guyodombori yilár.
/'tovavat 'toŋkyl guyo'domboɾi jɪ'la:ɾ/
tovavat tonkül gi=yod-mon-bi-ri yilár
icicle.CL3 crockpot CL2.PL=CL3-CONN-LOC-PST break

Icicles broke the crockpots (lit. "Crockpot them-she-of-in-past breakage")

The pronominal affixes do not differ in form regardless of whether they occupy the subject or object positions. The auxiliary thus has full polypersonal marking and serve to disambiguate core arguments. Ambiguity arises in number marking in the Class II affixes in their pre-vocalic forms due to phonologic mergers. Class III affixes, like their independent forms, make no distinction in number.

The pronominal agreement markers appear in the following table:

Peshpeg Verb - Pronominal Agreement Affixes
  First Person Second Person Class I Class II Class III
  Sg Pl Sg Pl Sg Pl Sg Pl Sg Pl
Before a consonant: su- ve- mu- jo- ne- hu- gu- gi- ye-
e- (precedes /j/, e.g. e-yódori)
Before a vowel: s- v- m- jor- n- h- g- y-



Present
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 sumbi vembi
2 membi jombi
Class I nembi humbi
Class II gumbi/gombi gundombi/godombi
Class III yódori
yadombi
Past
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 sumbiri vembiri
2 membiri jombiri
Class I nembiri humbiri
Class II gumbiri
gombiri
godombori
Class III yódori
yodombori
Future
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 sumboji vemboji
2 memboji jomboji
Class I nemboji humboji
Class II gomboji godomboji
Class III yodoroji
ojori

Synthetic Verbs

Unlike compound verbs, which require two separate lexemes, an auxiliary verb plus a verb root, synthetic verbs encode all verbal inflections on the verb root itself. Synthetic verbs are conservative, preserving the original Peshpeg verbal paradigms.

Three tenses are distinguished: present (unmarked), past (marked with the prefix i-), and future (prefix ta-). Aspect marking is distinguished by null-marking for the perfect, and the prefix dal- for the imperfect. The prefixes show vowel harmony with the first vowel of the verb root.

The suffix -dak derives infinitives, used mainly to serve as the verb of a purposive clause. They inherit the tense and aspect of the verb of their matrix clause:

Kogan vordak Kodzorin iru.
/'kogan 'voɾdak 'kodzoɾɪn ɪ'ɾu/
kogan vori-dak kodzorin i-ru
deer.CL2.ABS hunt-INF hammer_CL1.NOM PST.CL1-go

Kodzorin went out to hunt deer (lit. "In order to hunt deer, Kodzorin went out")

Infinitives may also serve as verbal nouns, falling under Class III:

Irudak gajak gambi.
i-ru-dak gajak gambi
PST-go-CL3.INF foolish AUX.CL3.S.PRS

Going there was foolish (lit. "Having gone there is foolish.")
  • vuz- to do, make; to cause
Present
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 uzni uzunti
2 uzi uzusti
Class I uzu uzuti
Class II uzumvi uzumvit
Class III uzunki
urunkik
  • ru- to go
Present
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 runi runti
2 ruzi rusti
Class I ru ruti
Class II rumvi rumvit
Class III runki
runkik
Past
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 iruni irunti
2 iruzi irusti
Class I iru iruti
Class II irumvi irumvit
Class III irunki
Future
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 turuni turunti
2 turuzi turusti
Class I turu turuti
Class II turumvi turumvit
Class III turunki
turunkik


  • ye- to do
Present
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 yeni yenti
2 yezi yesti
Class I yi yeti
Class II yemvi yemvit
Class III yenki
yenkik
Past
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 iyeni iyenti
2 iyezi iyesti
Class I iye iyeti
Class II iyemvi iyemvit
Class III iyenki
iyenkik
Future
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 tayeni tayenti
2 tayezi tayesti
Class I taye tayeti
Class II tayemvi tayemvit
Class III tayenki
tayenkik


  • tor- to want
Present
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 torni < tor-n-i torunti < tor-n-t-i
2 torzi < tor-z-i toristi < tor-z-t-i
Class I tori < tor-i torti < tor-t-i
Class II torumvi < tor-mv-i tormvit < tor-nv-i-t
Class III torunki < tor-nk-i
torunkik < tor-nk-i-t
Past
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 itorni < i-tor-n-i itorunti < i-tor-n-t-i
2 itorzi < i-tor-z-i itoristi < i-tor-z-t-i
Class I itori < i-tor-i itorti < i-tor-t-i
Class II itorumvi < i-tor-mv-i itormvit < i-tor-nv-i-t
Class III itorunki < i-tor-nk-i
itorunkik < i-tor-nk-i-t
Future
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 tatorni < ta-tor-n-i tatorunti < ta-tor-n-t-i
2 tatorzi < ta-tor-z-i tatoristi < ta-tor-z-t-i
Class I tatori < ta-tor-i tatorti < ta-tor-t-i
Class II tatorumvi < ta-tor-mv-i tatormvit < ta-tor-nv-i-t
Class III tatorunki < ta-tor-nk-i
tatorunkik < ta-tor-nk-i-t


  • jóru- to say
Present
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 jórni < jóru-n-i jórunti < jóru-n-t-i
2 jorzi < jóru-z-i joristi < jóru-z-t-i
Class I jóri < jóru-i jorti < jóru-t-i
Class II jórumvi < jóru-mv-i jórumvit < jóru-nv-i-t
Class III jórunki < jóru-nk-i
jórunkik < jóru-nk-i-t
Past
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 ijórni < i-jóru-n-i ijórunti < i-jóru-n-t-i
2 ijórzi < i-jóru-z-i ijórusti < i-jóru-z-t-i
Class I ijóri < i-jóru-i ijórti < i-jóru-t-i
Class II ijórumvi < i-jóru-mv-i ijórumvit < i-jóru-nv-i-t
Class III ijórunki < i-jóru-nk-i
ijórunkik < i-jóru-nk-i-t
Future
Person Number
Singular Plural
1 tajórni < tajóru-n-i tajórunti < tajóru-n-t-i
2 tajórzi < tajóru-z-i tajóristi < tajóru-z-t-i
Class I tajóri < tajóru-i tajórti < tajóru-t-i
Class II tajórumvi < tajóru-mv-i tajórumvit < tajóru-nv-i-t
Class III tajórunki < tajóru-nk-i
tajórunkik < tajóru-nk-i-t

Particles

Syntax

Constituent order

Old and Middle Peshpeg exhibited VSO order, but the modern language is now an SOV language due to Minhast influence.

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Dozun sujun guverin.
/dozyn sud͡ʒun gyvɛɾɪn/
doč=gun su-j-mon guve-rin
be.red.PST 1S-GEN-CONN face-CL3S

My face was red.

Other resources

Footnotes

1Possibly from a defunct locative case suffix -bi, ultimately derived from Middle Peshpeg *nimi "chest", c.f. Modern Peshpeg embi "hollow"