Peshpeg

Introduction

The Peshpeg language, or Agalaion Kirmon Peshpega ("the way true humans speak"), is a seriously endangered language in the valleys of the Kilmay Rī Mountains and the prefectures of south-central Minhay. The language is considered moribund: according to the last census, only about ninety fluent speakers remain, all older than sixty years. Younger generations speak only Minhast, from either the Wolf Speaker, Stone Speaker, or City Speaker dialects. Efforts to revitalize the language have been largely unsuccessful; with the exception of the City Speakers, most Minhast are either apathetic or even actively hostile to revitalization efforts. Social and economic discrimination towards the Peshpegs has only accelerated the decline of the language.

Peshpeg is classified as a language isolate. Any similarities to the Minhast language are due to language contact, with most of the influences being unidirectional; only a handful of Peshpeg words, most of them related to the fauna and flora of their original homeland, have been adopted by the Wolf Speaker and Stone Speaker dialects. However, Minhast has had an enormous impact on the Peshpeg language; close to 70% of the Peshpeg lexicon come from Minhast, the original base-10 numerical system has been supplanted by the vegisimal system of the dominant language, and the loss of certain phonemes and adoption of new ones are due to Minhast pressure on the Peshpeg language. Even the root kirm- (language) in Kirmon Peshpega is of Minhast origin. Some linguists have explored the possibility of a relationship with Golahát, another endangered, non-Minhast language, but plausible evidence for such a relationship has not been demonstrated.

Morphology

Nouns

Peshpeg nouns fall into one of four declensions, based on the shape and/or behaviour of the nominal root. Six cases are recognized, although some declensions may lack one or more cases due to phonological mergers and other factors. Irregularities are common.

Case	Noun Classes
	First Declension		Second Declension		Third Declension		Fourth Declension
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Direct	peshpega		nafon		paefne		kirm
Construct	peshpegan		nafnen		pefen		kirmon
Benefactive	peshpegana		(n/a)		pefla		(n/a)
Ablative	peshpegka		nafnik		pifnik		kirmok
Comitative	peshpegat		nafen		pefen		kirmot
Locative	(n/a)		nafnae		pefni		(n/a)
Meaning	man, human being		bone		tree		speech

The first declension is reserved for highly animate nouns, namely humans and vertebrates. For this reason, this declension typically lacks a locative, which are reserved for inanimate nouns.

Ablaut is a feature of third declension nouns. Generally the root vowel of the noun changes to an /e/ or /ɪ,i/ if the root vowel is /a, /æ/; nevertheless, in the majority of cases the ablaut patterns must be memorized.

The fourth declension is associated with abstract nouns. The comitative form is used only with verbal nouns in purposive clauses.

Articles

Peshpeg has only definite articles; indefiniteness is expressed by lack of an article. There are four forms of the definite article, each which must agree with the declension of the noun they modify. In the modern language, articles appear before the noun they modify, in contrast with older forms of the language. The change in word order is a result of Minhast influence, where modifiers precede precede their heads. With the exception of the direct case, the stem for the definite article of first declension nouns is do-. Note that the none definite articles agree with the declension class of their noun head but take the case of the possessor.

Case	Articles
	First Declension		Second Declension		Third Declension		Fourth Declension
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Direct	tal		talo		tali		talim
Benefactive	dorhi		tador		tanok		(n/a)
Ablative	dorhat		tadon		tadon		tadon
Comitative	doat		taden		taien		taiot
Locative	(n/a)		tadni		tanok		(n/a)

Numbers

The Minhast number system has entirely replaced the native Peshpeg system in its original form. The only difference is that the verbal forms of the numbers have not been imported.

As an illustration of how pervasive the influence of Minhast was on Peshpeg, observe that /x/ and /ʃ/, the allophone /ħ/, and vowel length and consonantal gemination, which are otherwise not a part of Peshpeg phonology, have been imported as well.

Number	Cardinal	Ordinal
one	šūmi	sanannūx, manx
two	šānī	šānāx
three	duxt	duxtāx
four	meneħ	menhāx
five	kaħtam	kaħtamāx
six	silix	silxāx
seven	gelix	gilxāx
eight	mun	munāx
nine	karun	karnāx
ten	tazem	tazmāx
eleven	šiktāz	šiktezāx
twelve	sen	senāx
thirteen	halk	halkāx
fourteen	duggalk	duggalxāx
fifteen	āš	āšāx
sixteen	neš	nešāx
seventeen	manšat	manšatāx
eighteen	zenat	zenatāx
nineteen	zelkark	zelkarkāx
twenty	šentāz	šentezāx
twenty-one	šentāz-u-šum	šentāz-u-manāx
twenty-two	šentāz-u-šan	šentāz-u-šanāx
twenty-three	šentāz-u-duxt	šentāz-u-duxtāx
thirty	šentāz-u-tazem	šentāz-u-tazmāx
forty	saššentāz	saššentezāx
fifty	saššentāz-u-tazem	saššentāz-u-tazmāx
sixty	duššentāz	duššentezāx
seventy	duššentāz-u-tazem	duššentezāx-u-tazmāx
eighty	meneštazem	meneštazmāx
ninety	meneštazem-u-tazem	meneštazmāx-u-tazmāx
one hundred	gādi	gādyāx
one thousand	gaggādi	gaggadyāx

Postpositions

Peshpeg has borrowed all of its postpositions from Minhast. These postpositions may be combined with different nominal inflections to modify spatial or locative relations, or to supplement areas not covered by the native case system. For example, the first declension lacks a locative case, but the suffix -ki, a locative clitic borrowed directly from Minhast, may be employed for first declension nouns if need be. Moreover, they may be combined with native positional nouns that are joined to their dependents in the construct case to add further distinctions, e.g. Taros enta naptenki tal unat sarbakol "Taros pulled out the gall inside the boy('s chest)" taros enta napt-en-ki unat sarbakol -> PN gall heart-CONSTR-LOC ART boy pull.out.

Postpositional Clitics

Case	Postposition
Dative-Allative	=āran =(a)ran
Benefactive	=nī =ni
Ablative	=yār =yar
Locative	=kī =ki
Instrumental	=pār =par
Commitative	=kān =kan
Malefactive	=dāš

Syntax

Constituent order

Old and Middle Peshpeg exhibited VSO order, but the modern language is now an SOV language due to Minhast influence. Because the nominative and accusative cases have merged into the direct case, word order is strict.