Proto-Coelo-Caric: Difference between revisions

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|'''Lenition of the velar plosive */k/''' to a new consonant, */x/ [x] (probably [h] in some environments) — *ʼnakis "strength" > *ðaxis > ''fais''
|'''Lenition of the velar plosive */k/''' to a new consonant, */x/ [x] (probably [h] in some environments) — *ʼnakis "strength" > *ðaxis > ''fais''
|-
|-
|'''Hiatus epenthesis'''. The epentheme is */n/ if at least one of the vowels is */a/, unless there is a neighboring */n/ already present, in which case it is instead */j/. Otherwise, a new consonant, */w/, breaks the hiatus.
|'''*/ɔe/ > */ɔj/; */eɔ/ > */jɔ/''' — *teɸnɔe "speech, language" > *tepɔj > ''tepōi'' "language"; *leɔ "that" > *ljɔ > ''liō'' "(s)he/it, this/that"
|-
|-
|'''Loss of [[laryngeal]]s''', phonemicising the [[allophone]]s of {{PIE|/e/}}:
|'''Hiatus epenthesis'''. The epentheme is */n/ if at least one of the vowels is */a/ and neither is */u/, unless there is a neighboring */n/ already present, in which case it is instead */j/. Otherwise, a new consonant, */w/, breaks the hiatus:
* Word-initial laryngeals are lost before a consonant — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*h₁dóntm̥}} "tooth, acc." > {{PIE|*dóntum}} > {{PIE|*tanþų}}}}
* */VV/ > */VnV/ — *ð-a-ɔ-m-sats "in the perspective of going towards" > *ðanɔmsats > ''falusats'' "hello (polite)"
* Laryngeals are lost before vowels:
* */VV/ > */VjV/ — *nɔam "we (inclusive or dual)" > *nɔjam > ''nōiav'' "we (inclusive)"
** {{PIE|/h₁V/}} > {{PIE|/V/}} — {{PIE|*h₁ésti}} "is" > {{PIE|*ésti}} > {{PIE|*isti}}
* */VV/ > */VwV/ — *aue "you (plural)" > *awuwe > ''avuve''
** {{PIE|/h₂e/}} > {{PIE|/a/}}, {{PIE|/h₂V/}} > {{PIE|/V/}} otherwise — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*h₂énti}} "in front" > (with shift of accent) {{PIE|*antí}} > {{PIE|*andi}} "in addition"}}
** {{PIE|/h₃e/}} > {{PIE|/o/}}, {{PIE|/h₃V/}} > {{PIE|/V/}} otherwise — {{PIE|*h₃érō}} "eagle" > {{PIE|*órô}} > {{PIE|*arô}}
* Laryngeals are lost after vowels, but lengthen the preceding vowel: {{PIE|/VH/}} > {{PIE|/Vː/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*séh₁mō}} "seeds" > {{PIE|*sēmô}} > {{PIE|*sēmô}}}}
** Two vowels that come to stand in [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] because of this change contract into an overlong vowel — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*-oHom}} "dative plural" > {{PIE|*-ôm}} > {{PIE|*-ǫ̂}}; {{PIE|*-eh₂es}} "eh₂-stem nom. pl." > {{PIE|*-âs}} > {{PIE|*-ôz}}}}
** In word-final position, the resulting long vowels remain distinct from (shorter than) the overlong vowels that were formed from PIE word-final long vowels — {{PIE|*-oh₂}} "thematic 1st sg." > {{PIE|*-ō}}
* Laryngeals remain between consonants.
|-
|-
|'''[[Cowgill's law]]''': {{PIE|/h₃/}} (and possibly {{PIE|/h₂/}}) is strengthened to {{PIE|/g/}} between a sonorant and {{PIE|/w/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*n̥h₃mé}} "us two" > {{PIE|*n̥h₃wé}} > {{PIE|*ungwé}} > {{PIE|*unk}}}}
|'''Merging of */j/ to */i/'''
|-
|-
|'''Vocalisation of remaining laryngeals''': {{PIE|/H/}} > {{PIE|/ə/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*ph₂tḗr}} "father" > {{PIE|*pətḗr}} > {{PIE|*fadēr}}; {{PIE|*sámh₂dʰos}} "sand" > {{PIE|*sámədʰos}} > {{PIE|*samdaz}}}}
|In closed syllables, and when permitted by phonotactics, the '''reduction of the diphthong */iɔ/ into */iw/'''
|-
|-
|'''Velars are labialised''' by following {{PIE|/w/}}: {{PIE|*éḱwos}} "horse" > {{PIE|*ékwos}} > {{PIE|*ékʷos}} > {{PIE|*ehwaz}}
|'''Appearance of the closed vowel''', phonemicising the reduced, nasal [[allophone]] */ɵ/ of */ɔ/ between nasal consonants — *ð-a-ɔ-m-sats "in the perspective of going towards" > *ðanɵmsats > ''falusats'' "hello (polite)"
|-
|'''Labiovelars are delabialised''' next to {{PIE|/u/}} (or {{PIE|/un/}}) and before {{PIE|/t/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*gʷʰénti-}} ~ {{PIE|*gʷʰn̥tí-}} "killing" > {{PIE|*gʷʰúntis}} > {{PIE|*gʰúntis}} > {{PIE|*gunþiz}} "battle"}}
*This rule continued to operate into the Proto-Germanic period.
|}
|}


Revision as of 21:10, 2 November 2013

The Proto-Coelo-Caric language is the reconstructed ancestor of the Coelo-Caric languages, Silōs and Carichendan. It would have descended from the Proto-Sinos-Koelic language.

Development into the Coelo-Caric languages

Phonological stages from Proto-Coelo-Caric to Standard Modern Silōs

The following changes are known or presumed to have occurred in the history of Pre-Silōs in the wider sense from the end of Proto-Coelo-Caric up to the modern language. The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list.

Pre-Silōs (pS)

This stage began with the separation of a distinct speech, perhaps while still forming part of the Proto-Indo-European dialect continuum. It contained many innovations that were shared with other Indo-European branches to various degrees, probably through areal contacts, and mutual intelligibility with other dialects would have remained for some time. It was nevertheless on its own path, whether dialect or language.

Denasalization of PCC */ʼn/ ([n̪], an interdental nasal stop):
  • Word-initially, it became a simple fricative — */ʼn/ > */ð/ — *ʼnakis "strength" > *ðakis > fais
  • Intervocalically, it dissimilated into a nasal cluster — */ʼn/ > */mð/ — *teʼni "name" > *temði > tevi
  • Word-finally, it merged with */m/
  • It is not certain whether this change or the precursors to such a change had already occurred in Proto-Coelo-Caric, as a similar change is observed in Pre-Carichendan.
Merging of PCC */x/, */g/, */č/ into a new consonant, */ǯ/ [d͡ʒ] — *ča čenta "home world" > *ǯaǯenta > zazelta "Earth, the world"; *uxa "blue" > *uǯa > zva
*/ŋ/ > */ɴ/ — *ŋa "to have" > *ɴa > a
Strengthening of PCC voiceless fricatives into plosives:
  • */ɸ/ > */p/ — *teɸ "two" > tep
    • Thanks to phonotactics, this change triggered a few changes in adjacent consonants, including very early instances of liquid:
    • Word-initially, */ɸn/ > */pl/ — *ɸnɔl "date" > *plɔl > Plōrmanzōmistufet "The Day of Five"
    • Intervocalically, */ɸn/ > */p/ — *teɸnɔe "speech, language" > *tepɔe > tepōi "language"
  • */þ/ > */t/ — *-þa "possession marker" > -ta
Lenition of the velar plosive */k/ to a new consonant, */x/ [x] (probably [h] in some environments) — *ʼnakis "strength" > *ðaxis > fais
*/ɔe/ > */ɔj/; */eɔ/ > */jɔ/ — *teɸnɔe "speech, language" > *tepɔj > tepōi "language"; *leɔ "that" > *ljɔ > liō "(s)he/it, this/that"
Hiatus epenthesis. The epentheme is */n/ if at least one of the vowels is */a/ and neither is */u/, unless there is a neighboring */n/ already present, in which case it is instead */j/. Otherwise, a new consonant, */w/, breaks the hiatus:
  • */VV/ > */VnV/ — *ð-a-ɔ-m-sats "in the perspective of going towards" > *ðanɔmsats > falusats "hello (polite)"
  • */VV/ > */VjV/ — *nɔam "we (inclusive or dual)" > *nɔjam > nōiav "we (inclusive)"
  • */VV/ > */VwV/ — *aue "you (plural)" > *awuwe > avuve
Merging of */j/ to */i/
In closed syllables, and when permitted by phonotactics, the reduction of the diphthong */iɔ/ into */iw/
Appearance of the closed vowel, phonemicising the reduced, nasal allophone */ɵ/ of */ɔ/ between nasal consonants — *ð-a-ɔ-m-sats "in the perspective of going towards" > *ðanɵmsats > falusats "hello (polite)"

Primitive Silōs (PmS)

This stage began its evolution as a form of centum PIE that had lost its laryngeals and had five long and six short vowels, as well as one or two overlong vowels. The consonant system was still that of PIE minus palatovelars and laryngeals, but the loss of syllabic resonants already made the language markedly different from PIE proper. Mutual intelligibility might have still existed, but strained, and this period marked the definitive break of Germanic from the other Indo-European languages and the beginning of Germanic proper, containing most of the sound changes that are now held to define this branch distinctively. This stage contained various consonant and vowel shifts, the loss of contrastive accent, and the beginnings of the reduction of unstressed syllables as a result.

Loss of word-final non-high short vowels /e/, /a/, /o/ — *wóyde "(s)he knows" > *wóyd > *wait
  • A /j/ or /w/ preceding the vowel is also lost — *tósyo "of that" > *tós > *þas
  • Single-syllable words were not affected, but clitics were — *-kʷe "and" > *-kʷ > *-hw
  • When the lost vowel was accented, the accent shifted to the preceding syllable — *n̥smé "us" > *n̥swé > *unswé > *úns > *uns (not *unz, showing that loss occurred before Verner's law)
Grimm's law: Chain shift of the three series of plosives. Note that voiced plosives had already been devoiced before a voiceless obstruent prior to this stage. Labiovelars were delabialised before /t/.
  • Voiceless plosives become fricatives, unless preceded by another obstruent. In a sequence of two voiceless obstruents, the second obstruent remains a plosive.
    • /p/ > /ɸ/ (f) — *ph₂tḗr "father" > *fəþḗr > *fadēr
    • /t/ > /θ/ (þ) — *tód "that" > *þód > *þat
    • /k/ > /x/ (h) — *kátus "fight" > *háþus > *haþuz; *h₂eǵs- "axle" > (devoicing) *aks- > *ahs- > *ahsō
    • /kʷ/ > /xʷ/ (hw) — *kʷód "what" > *hʷód > *hwat
    • Since the second of two obstruents is unaffected, the sequences /sp/, /st/, /sk/, /skʷ/, /tt/ (only in *atta "dad") remain.
    • The above also forms the Germanic spirant law:
      • /bt/, /bʰt/, /pt/ > /ɸt/ — *kh₂ptós "grabbed" > *kəptós > *həftós > *haftaz "captive"
      • /gt/, /gʰt/, /kt/ > /xt/ — *oḱtṓw "eight" > *oktṓw > *ohtṓw > *ahtōu
      • /gʷt/, /gʷʰt/, /kʷt/ > /xt/ — *nokʷtm̥ "night, acc." > *noktum > *nohtum > *nahtų
  • Voiced plosives are devoiced:
    • /b/ > /p/ — *dʰewbu- "deep" > *dʰewpu- > *dewpu- > *deupaz (reformed as a-stem)
    • /d/ > /t/ — *h₁dóntm̥ "tooth, acc." > *tónþum > *tanþų; *kʷód "what" > *hʷód > *hwat
    • /g/ > /k/ — *wérǵom "work" > *wérgom > *wérkom > *werką
    • /gʷ/ > /kʷ/ — *gʷémeti "(s)he will step, subj." > *kʷémeþi > *kwimidi "(s)he comes"
  • Aspirated plosives become voiced plosives or fricatives (see below):
    • /bʰ/ > /b/ ([b,β]) — *bʰéreti "(s)he is carrying" > *béreþi > *biridi
    • /dʰ/ > /d/ ([d,ð]) — *dʰóh₁mos "thing put" > *dṓmos > *dōmaz "judgement"
    • /gʰ/ > /g/ ([g,ɣ]) — *gʰáns "goose" > *gáns > *gans
    • /gʷʰ/ > /gʷ/ ([gʷ,ɣʷ]) — *sóngʷʰos "chant" > *sóngʷos > *sangwaz "song"
Verner's law: voiceless fricatives are voiced, allophonically at first, when preceded by an unaccented syllable:
  • /ɸ/ > [β] — *upéri "over" > *uféri > *ubéri > *ubiri
  • /θ/ > [ð] — *tewtéh₂ "tribe" > *þewþā́ > *þewdā́ > *þeudō
  • /x/ > [ɣ] — *h₂yuHn̥ḱós "young" > *yunkós > *yunhós > *yungós > *jungaz (with -z by analogy)
  • /xʷ/ > [ɣʷ] — *kʷekʷléh₂ "wheels (collective)" > *hʷehʷlā́ > *hʷegʷlā́ > *hweulō
  • /s/ > [z] — *h₁régʷeses "of darkness" > *rékʷeses > *rékʷezez > *rikwiziz; *kʷékʷlos "wheel" > *hʷéhʷlos > *hʷéhʷloz > *hwehwlaz
  • Some small words which were generally unaccented were also affected — *h₁ésmi, unstressed *h₁esmi "I am" > *esmi > *ezmi > *immi; *h₁sénti, unstressed *h₁senti "they are" > *senþi > *sendi > *sindi (the stressed variants, which would have become *ismi and *sinþi, were lost)
All words become stressed on their first syllable. The PIE contrastive accent is lost, phonemicising the voicing distinction created by Verner's law.
Word-initial /gʷ/ > /b/ — *gʷʰédʰyeti "(s)he is asking for" > *gʷédyedi > *bédyedi > *bidiþi "(s)he asks, (s)he prays" (with -þ- by analogy)
Assimilation of sonorants:
  • /nw/ > /nn/ — *ténh₂us "thin" ~ fem. *tn̥h₂éwih₂ > *tn̥h₂ús ~ *tn̥h₂wíh₂ > *þunus ~ *þunwī > *þunus ~ *þunnī > *þunnuz ~ *þunnī
  • /ln/ > /ll/ — *pl̥h₁nós "full" > *fulnos > *fullos > *fullaz
  • /zm/ > /mm/ — *h₁esmi "I am, unstr." > *ezmi > *emmi > *immi
Unstressed /owo/ > /oː/ — *-owos "thematic 1st du." > *-ōz
Unstressed /ew/ > /ow/ before a consonant or word-finally — *-ews "u-stem gen. sg." > *-owz > *-auz
Unstressed /e/ > /i/ except before /r/ — *-éteh₂ "abstract noun suffix" > *-eþā > *-iþā > *-iþō
  • Unstressed /ej/ contracts to /iː/ — *-éys "i-stem gen. sg." > *-iys > *-īs > *-īz (with -z by analogy)
  • /e/ before /r/ later becomes /ɑ/, but not until after the application of i-mutation.
  • Some words which could be unstressed as a whole were also affected, often creating stressed/unstressed pairs — *éǵh₂ "I" > *ek > unstressed *ik (remaining beside stressed *ek)
Unstressed /ji/ > /i/ — *légʰyeti "(s)he is lying down" ~ *légʰyonti "they are lying down" > *legyidi ~ *legyondi > *legidi ~ *legyondi > *ligiþi ~ *ligjanþi (with -þ- by analogy)
  • This process creates diphthongs from originally disyllabic sequences — *-oyend "thematic optative 3pl" > *-oyint > *-oint > *-ain; *áyeri "in the morning" > *ayiri > *airi "early"; *tréyes "three" > *þreyiz > *þreiz > *þrīz
  • The sequence /iji/ becomes /iː/ — *gʰósteyes "strangers, nom. pl." > *gostiyiz > *gostīz > *gastīz "guests"
Merging of non-high back vowels:
  • /o/, /a/ — /ɑ/ - *gʰóstis "stranger" > *gostiz > *gastiz "guest"; *kátus "fight" > *haþuz "battle"
  • /oː/, /aː/ > /ɑː/ — *dʰóh₁mos "thing put" > *dōmoz > *dāmaz > *dōmaz "judgement"; *swā́dus "sweet" > *swātuz > *swōtuz
  • /oːː/, /aːː/ > /ɑːː/ (â) — *séh₁mō "seeds" > *sēmô > *sēmâ > *sēmô; *-eh₂es "eh₂-stem nom. pl." > *-âz > *-ôz

Old Silōs (OS)

By this stage, Germanic had emerged as a distinctive branch and had undergone many of the sound changes that would make its later descendants recognisable as Germanic languages. It had shifted its consonant inventory from a system rich in plosives to one containing primarily fricatives, had lost the PIE mobile pitch accent in favour of a predictable stress accent, and had merged two of its vowels. The stress accent had also begun to cause the erosion of unstressed syllables already, which would continue in its descendants up to the present day. This final stage of the language included the remaining development until the breakup into dialects, and most notably featured the appearance of nasal vowels and the first beginning of umlaut, another characteristic Germanic feature.

Word-final /m/ > /n/ — *tóm "that, acc. masc." > *þam > *þan "then"; *-om "a-stem acc. sg." > *-am > *-an > *-ą
/m/ > /n/ before dental consonants — *ḱm̥tóm "hundred" > *humdan > *hundan > *hundą; *déḱm̥d "ten" > *tehumt > *tehunt > *tehun
Word-final /n/ is lost after unstressed syllables, and the preceding vowel is nasalised — *-om "a-stem acc. sg." > *-am > *-an > *-ą; *-eh₂m > *-ān > *-ą̄ > *-ǭ; *-oHom "genitive plural" > *-ân > *-ą̂ > *-ǫ̂
Nasal /ẽː/ is lowered to /ɑ̃ː/ — *dʰédʰeh₁m "I was putting" > *dedēn > *dedę̄ > *dedą̄ > *dedǭ
Elimination of /ə/:
  • Unstressed /ə/ is lost between consonants — *sámh₂dʰos "sand" > *samədaz > *samdaz; *takéh₁- "to be silent" > (with added suffix) *takəyónti "they are silent" > *þagəyanþi > *þagyanþi > *þagjanþi
  • /ə/ > /ɑ/ elsewhere — *ph₂tḗr "father" > *fədēr > *fadēr; *takéh₁- "to be silent" > (with added suffix) *takəyéti "(s)he is silent" > *þagəyiþi > *þagəiþi > *þagaiþi
Loss of /t/ after unstressed syllables — *déḱm̥d "ten" > *tehunt > *tehun; *bʰéroyd "(s)he would carry, subj." > *berayt > *berai; *mélid ~ *mélit- "honey" > *melit ~ *melid- > *meli ~ *melid- > *mili ~ *milid-
/ɣʷ/ > /w/, sometimes /ɣ/ — *snóygʷʰos "snow" > *snaygʷaz > *snaiwaz; *kʷekʷléh₂ "wheels (collective)" > *hʷegʷlā > *hʷewlā > *hweulō
i-mutation: /e/ > /i/ when followed by /i/ or /j/ in the same or next syllable — *bʰéreti "(s)he is carrying" > *beridi > *biridi; *médʰyos "middle" > *medyaz > *midjaz; *néwios "new" > *newyaz > *niwjaz
  • This eliminates the remaining /ei/, changing it to /iː/ — *deywós "god" > *teywaz > *Tīwaz "Týr"; *tréyes "three" > *þreiz > *þrīz
/e/ > /i/ when followed by a syllable-final nasal — *en "in" > *in; *séngʷʰeti "(s)he chants" > *sengʷidi > *singwidi "(s)he sings"
  • This followed the earliest contact with Finnic people, since Finnish preserves the older vowel in the loanword rengas "ring" (from early Proto-Germanic *hrengaz, later *hringaz).
Long a is raised:
  • /ɑː/ > /ɔː/ — *dʰóh₁mos "thing put" > *dāmaz > *dōmaz "judgement"; *swā́dus "sweet" > *swātuz > *swōtuz
  • /ɑːː/ > /ɔːː/ — *séh₁mō "seeds" > *sēmâ > *sēmô; *-eh₂es "eh₂-stem nom. pl." > *-âz > *-ôz
  • This followed the earliest contact with the Romans, since Latin Rōmānī was borrowed as *Rūmānīz and then shifted to *Rūmōnīz.
/j/ is lost between vowels except after /i/ and /w/ (but it is lost after syllabic /u/). The two vowels that come to stand in hiatus then contract to long vowels or diphthongs — *-oyh₁m̥ "thematic optative 1sg sg." > *-oyum > *-ayų > *-aų; *áyeri "in the morning" > *ayiri > *airi "early"
  • This process creates a new /ɑː/ from earlier /ɑjɑ/ - *steh₂- "to stand" > (with suffix added) *sth₂yónti "they stand" > *stayanþi > *stānþi
/n/ is lost before /x/, causing compensatory lengthening and nasalisation of the preceding vowel — *ḱónketi "(s)he hangs" > *hanhidi (phonetically [ˈxɑ̃ːxiði])

Phonological stages from Proto-Coelo-Caric to Modern Carichendan

The following changes are known or presumed to have occurred in the history of Carichendan in the wider sense from the end of Proto-Coelo-Caric up to the modern language. The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list.

Pre-Proto-Germanic (Pre-PGmc)

This stage began with the separation of a distinct speech, perhaps while still forming part of the Proto-Indo-European dialect continuum. It contained many innovations that were shared with other Indo-European branches to various degrees, probably through areal contacts, and mutual intelligibility with other dialects would have remained for some time. It was nevertheless on its own path, whether dialect or language.

Merging of PIE "palatal" and "velar" plosives (Germanic is therefore a centum language):
  • /ḱ/ > /k/ — *ḱm̥tóm "hundred" > *km̥tóm > *hundą
  • /ǵ/ > /g/ — *wérǵom "work" > *wérgom > *werką
  • /ǵʰ/ > /gʰ/ — *ǵʰóstis "stranger" > *gʰóstis > *gastiz "guest"
  • Note that in more recent theories (e.g. Ringe 2006), there was nothing palatal about the so-called "palatal" series, i.e. the "palatal" /ḱ/ was actually a plain velar [k] while the "plain velar" /k/ was actually a uvular [q] or similar. Hence, it would be more accurate to say that /k/ > /ḱ/.
Epenthesis of /u/ before the syllabic sonorants:
  • /m̥/ > /um/ — *ḱm̥tóm "hundred" > *kumtóm > *hundą
  • /n̥/ > /un/ — *n̥tér "inside" > *untér > *under "among"
  • /l̥/ > /ul/ — *wĺ̥kʷos "wolf" > *wúlkʷos > *wulfaz
  • /r̥/ > /ur/ — *wŕ̥mis "worm" > *wurmis > *wurmiz
An epenthetic /s/ was inserted already in PIE after dental consonants when followed by a suffix beginning with a dental.
  • This sequence now becomes: /TsT/ > /ts/ > /ss/ — *wid-tós "known" (pronounced *widstos) > *witstós > *wissós > *wissaz "certain"
  • A single example exists where /tt/ was word-internal, in which case it remained (even after Grimm's law below)— *atta "dad" > *attô
Geminate consonants are shortened after a consonant or a long vowel — *káyd-tis "act of calling" (pronounced *káydstis) > *káyssis > *káysis > *haisiz "command"
Word-final long vowels are lengthened to "overlong" vowels — *séh₁mō "seeds" > *séh₁mô > *sēmô
Loss of laryngeals, phonemicising the allophones of /e/:
  • Word-initial laryngeals are lost before a consonant — *h₁dóntm̥ "tooth, acc." > *dóntum > *tanþų
  • Laryngeals are lost before vowels:
    • /h₁V/ > /V/ — *h₁ésti "is" > *ésti > *isti
    • /h₂e/ > /a/, /h₂V/ > /V/ otherwise — *h₂énti "in front" > (with shift of accent) *antí > *andi "in addition"
    • /h₃e/ > /o/, /h₃V/ > /V/ otherwise — *h₃érō "eagle" > *órô > *arô
  • Laryngeals are lost after vowels, but lengthen the preceding vowel: /VH/ > /Vː/ — *séh₁mō "seeds" > *sēmô > *sēmô
    • Two vowels that come to stand in hiatus because of this change contract into an overlong vowel — *-oHom "dative plural" > *-ôm > *-ǫ̂; *-eh₂es "eh₂-stem nom. pl." > *-âs > *-ôz
    • In word-final position, the resulting long vowels remain distinct from (shorter than) the overlong vowels that were formed from PIE word-final long vowels — *-oh₂ "thematic 1st sg." > *-ō
  • Laryngeals remain between consonants.
Cowgill's law: /h₃/ (and possibly /h₂/) is strengthened to /g/ between a sonorant and /w/ — *n̥h₃mé "us two" > *n̥h₃wé > *ungwé > *unk
Vocalisation of remaining laryngeals: /H/ > /ə/ — *ph₂tḗr "father" > *pətḗr > *fadēr; *sámh₂dʰos "sand" > *sámədʰos > *samdaz
Velars are labialised by following /w/: *éḱwos "horse" > *ékwos > *ékʷos > *ehwaz
Labiovelars are delabialised next to /u/ (or /un/) and before /t/ — *gʷʰénti- ~ *gʷʰn̥tí- "killing" > *gʷʰúntis > *gʰúntis > *gunþiz "battle"
  • This rule continued to operate into the Proto-Germanic period.

Early Proto-Germanic

This stage began its evolution as a form of centum PIE that had lost its laryngeals and had five long and six short vowels, as well as one or two overlong vowels. The consonant system was still that of PIE minus palatovelars and laryngeals, but the loss of syllabic resonants already made the language markedly different from PIE proper. Mutual intelligibility might have still existed, but strained, and this period marked the definitive break of Germanic from the other Indo-European languages and the beginning of Germanic proper, containing most of the sound changes that are now held to define this branch distinctively. This stage contained various consonant and vowel shifts, the loss of contrastive accent, and the beginnings of the reduction of unstressed syllables as a result.

Loss of word-final non-high short vowels /e/, /a/, /o/ — *wóyde "(s)he knows" > *wóyd > *wait
  • A /j/ or /w/ preceding the vowel is also lost — *tósyo "of that" > *tós > *þas
  • Single-syllable words were not affected, but clitics were — *-kʷe "and" > *-kʷ > *-hw
  • When the lost vowel was accented, the accent shifted to the preceding syllable — *n̥smé "us" > *n̥swé > *unswé > *úns > *uns (not *unz, showing that loss occurred before Verner's law)
Grimm's law: Chain shift of the three series of plosives. Note that voiced plosives had already been devoiced before a voiceless obstruent prior to this stage. Labiovelars were delabialised before /t/.
  • Voiceless plosives become fricatives, unless preceded by another obstruent. In a sequence of two voiceless obstruents, the second obstruent remains a plosive.
    • /p/ > /ɸ/ (f) — *ph₂tḗr "father" > *fəþḗr > *fadēr
    • /t/ > /θ/ (þ) — *tód "that" > *þód > *þat
    • /k/ > /x/ (h) — *kátus "fight" > *háþus > *haþuz; *h₂eǵs- "axle" > (devoicing) *aks- > *ahs- > *ahsō
    • /kʷ/ > /xʷ/ (hw) — *kʷód "what" > *hʷód > *hwat
    • Since the second of two obstruents is unaffected, the sequences /sp/, /st/, /sk/, /skʷ/, /tt/ (only in *atta "dad") remain.
    • The above also forms the Germanic spirant law:
      • /bt/, /bʰt/, /pt/ > /ɸt/ — *kh₂ptós "grabbed" > *kəptós > *həftós > *haftaz "captive"
      • /gt/, /gʰt/, /kt/ > /xt/ — *oḱtṓw "eight" > *oktṓw > *ohtṓw > *ahtōu
      • /gʷt/, /gʷʰt/, /kʷt/ > /xt/ — *nokʷtm̥ "night, acc." > *noktum > *nohtum > *nahtų
  • Voiced plosives are devoiced:
    • /b/ > /p/ — *dʰewbu- "deep" > *dʰewpu- > *dewpu- > *deupaz (reformed as a-stem)
    • /d/ > /t/ — *h₁dóntm̥ "tooth, acc." > *tónþum > *tanþų; *kʷód "what" > *hʷód > *hwat
    • /g/ > /k/ — *wérǵom "work" > *wérgom > *wérkom > *werką
    • /gʷ/ > /kʷ/ — *gʷémeti "(s)he will step, subj." > *kʷémeþi > *kwimidi "(s)he comes"
  • Aspirated plosives become voiced plosives or fricatives (see below):
    • /bʰ/ > /b/ ([b,β]) — *bʰéreti "(s)he is carrying" > *béreþi > *biridi
    • /dʰ/ > /d/ ([d,ð]) — *dʰóh₁mos "thing put" > *dṓmos > *dōmaz "judgement"
    • /gʰ/ > /g/ ([g,ɣ]) — *gʰáns "goose" > *gáns > *gans
    • /gʷʰ/ > /gʷ/ ([gʷ,ɣʷ]) — *sóngʷʰos "chant" > *sóngʷos > *sangwaz "song"
Verner's law: voiceless fricatives are voiced, allophonically at first, when preceded by an unaccented syllable:
  • /ɸ/ > [β] — *upéri "over" > *uféri > *ubéri > *ubiri
  • /θ/ > [ð] — *tewtéh₂ "tribe" > *þewþā́ > *þewdā́ > *þeudō
  • /x/ > [ɣ] — *h₂yuHn̥ḱós "young" > *yunkós > *yunhós > *yungós > *jungaz (with -z by analogy)
  • /xʷ/ > [ɣʷ] — *kʷekʷléh₂ "wheels (collective)" > *hʷehʷlā́ > *hʷegʷlā́ > *hweulō
  • /s/ > [z] — *h₁régʷeses "of darkness" > *rékʷeses > *rékʷezez > *rikwiziz; *kʷékʷlos "wheel" > *hʷéhʷlos > *hʷéhʷloz > *hwehwlaz
  • Some small words which were generally unaccented were also affected — *h₁ésmi, unstressed *h₁esmi "I am" > *esmi > *ezmi > *immi; *h₁sénti, unstressed *h₁senti "they are" > *senþi > *sendi > *sindi (the stressed variants, which would have become *ismi and *sinþi, were lost)
All words become stressed on their first syllable. The PIE contrastive accent is lost, phonemicising the voicing distinction created by Verner's law.
Word-initial /gʷ/ > /b/ — *gʷʰédʰyeti "(s)he is asking for" > *gʷédyedi > *bédyedi > *bidiþi "(s)he asks, (s)he prays" (with -þ- by analogy)
Assimilation of sonorants:
  • /nw/ > /nn/ — *ténh₂us "thin" ~ fem. *tn̥h₂éwih₂ > *tn̥h₂ús ~ *tn̥h₂wíh₂ > *þunus ~ *þunwī > *þunus ~ *þunnī > *þunnuz ~ *þunnī
  • /ln/ > /ll/ — *pl̥h₁nós "full" > *fulnos > *fullos > *fullaz
  • /zm/ > /mm/ — *h₁esmi "I am, unstr." > *ezmi > *emmi > *immi
Unstressed /owo/ > /oː/ — *-owos "thematic 1st du." > *-ōz
Unstressed /ew/ > /ow/ before a consonant or word-finally — *-ews "u-stem gen. sg." > *-owz > *-auz
Unstressed /e/ > /i/ except before /r/ — *-éteh₂ "abstract noun suffix" > *-eþā > *-iþā > *-iþō
  • Unstressed /ej/ contracts to /iː/ — *-éys "i-stem gen. sg." > *-iys > *-īs > *-īz (with -z by analogy)
  • /e/ before /r/ later becomes /ɑ/, but not until after the application of i-mutation.
  • Some words which could be unstressed as a whole were also affected, often creating stressed/unstressed pairs — *éǵh₂ "I" > *ek > unstressed *ik (remaining beside stressed *ek)
Unstressed /ji/ > /i/ — *légʰyeti "(s)he is lying down" ~ *légʰyonti "they are lying down" > *legyidi ~ *legyondi > *legidi ~ *legyondi > *ligiþi ~ *ligjanþi (with -þ- by analogy)
  • This process creates diphthongs from originally disyllabic sequences — *-oyend "thematic optative 3pl" > *-oyint > *-oint > *-ain; *áyeri "in the morning" > *ayiri > *airi "early"; *tréyes "three" > *þreyiz > *þreiz > *þrīz
  • The sequence /iji/ becomes /iː/ — *gʰósteyes "strangers, nom. pl." > *gostiyiz > *gostīz > *gastīz "guests"
Merging of non-high back vowels:
  • /o/, /a/ — /ɑ/ - *gʰóstis "stranger" > *gostiz > *gastiz "guest"; *kátus "fight" > *haþuz "battle"
  • /oː/, /aː/ > /ɑː/ — *dʰóh₁mos "thing put" > *dōmoz > *dāmaz > *dōmaz "judgement"; *swā́dus "sweet" > *swātuz > *swōtuz
  • /oːː/, /aːː/ > /ɑːː/ (â) — *séh₁mō "seeds" > *sēmô > *sēmâ > *sēmô; *-eh₂es "eh₂-stem nom. pl." > *-âz > *-ôz

Late Proto-Germanic

By this stage, Germanic had emerged as a distinctive branch and had undergone many of the sound changes that would make its later descendants recognisable as Germanic languages. It had shifted its consonant inventory from a system rich in plosives to one containing primarily fricatives, had lost the PIE mobile pitch accent in favour of a predictable stress accent, and had merged two of its vowels. The stress accent had also begun to cause the erosion of unstressed syllables already, which would continue in its descendants up to the present day. This final stage of the language included the remaining development until the breakup into dialects, and most notably featured the appearance of nasal vowels and the first beginning of umlaut, another characteristic Germanic feature.

Word-final /m/ > /n/ — *tóm "that, acc. masc." > *þam > *þan "then"; *-om "a-stem acc. sg." > *-am > *-an > *-ą
/m/ > /n/ before dental consonants — *ḱm̥tóm "hundred" > *humdan > *hundan > *hundą; *déḱm̥d "ten" > *tehumt > *tehunt > *tehun
Word-final /n/ is lost after unstressed syllables, and the preceding vowel is nasalised — *-om "a-stem acc. sg." > *-am > *-an > *-ą; *-eh₂m > *-ān > *-ą̄ > *-ǭ; *-oHom "genitive plural" > *-ân > *-ą̂ > *-ǫ̂
Nasal /ẽː/ is lowered to /ɑ̃ː/ — *dʰédʰeh₁m "I was putting" > *dedēn > *dedę̄ > *dedą̄ > *dedǭ
Elimination of /ə/:
  • Unstressed /ə/ is lost between consonants — *sámh₂dʰos "sand" > *samədaz > *samdaz; *takéh₁- "to be silent" > (with added suffix) *takəyónti "they are silent" > *þagəyanþi > *þagyanþi > *þagjanþi
  • /ə/ > /ɑ/ elsewhere — *ph₂tḗr "father" > *fədēr > *fadēr; *takéh₁- "to be silent" > (with added suffix) *takəyéti "(s)he is silent" > *þagəyiþi > *þagəiþi > *þagaiþi
Loss of /t/ after unstressed syllables — *déḱm̥d "ten" > *tehunt > *tehun; *bʰéroyd "(s)he would carry, subj." > *berayt > *berai; *mélid ~ *mélit- "honey" > *melit ~ *melid- > *meli ~ *melid- > *mili ~ *milid-
/ɣʷ/ > /w/, sometimes /ɣ/ — *snóygʷʰos "snow" > *snaygʷaz > *snaiwaz; *kʷekʷléh₂ "wheels (collective)" > *hʷegʷlā > *hʷewlā > *hweulō
i-mutation: /e/ > /i/ when followed by /i/ or /j/ in the same or next syllable — *bʰéreti "(s)he is carrying" > *beridi > *biridi; *médʰyos "middle" > *medyaz > *midjaz; *néwios "new" > *newyaz > *niwjaz
  • This eliminates the remaining /ei/, changing it to /iː/ — *deywós "god" > *teywaz > *Tīwaz "Týr"; *tréyes "three" > *þreiz > *þrīz
/e/ > /i/ when followed by a syllable-final nasal — *en "in" > *in; *séngʷʰeti "(s)he chants" > *sengʷidi > *singwidi "(s)he sings"
  • This followed the earliest contact with Finnic people, since Finnish preserves the older vowel in the loanword rengas "ring" (from early Proto-Germanic *hrengaz, later *hringaz).
Long a is raised:
  • /ɑː/ > /ɔː/ — *dʰóh₁mos "thing put" > *dāmaz > *dōmaz "judgement"; *swā́dus "sweet" > *swātuz > *swōtuz
  • /ɑːː/ > /ɔːː/ — *séh₁mō "seeds" > *sēmâ > *sēmô; *-eh₂es "eh₂-stem nom. pl." > *-âz > *-ôz
  • This followed the earliest contact with the Romans, since Latin Rōmānī was borrowed as *Rūmānīz and then shifted to *Rūmōnīz.
/j/ is lost between vowels except after /i/ and /w/ (but it is lost after syllabic /u/). The two vowels that come to stand in hiatus then contract to long vowels or diphthongs — *-oyh₁m̥ "thematic optative 1sg sg." > *-oyum > *-ayų > *-aų; *áyeri "in the morning" > *ayiri > *airi "early"
  • This process creates a new /ɑː/ from earlier /ɑjɑ/ - *steh₂- "to stand" > (with suffix added) *sth₂yónti "they stand" > *stayanþi > *stānþi
/n/ is lost before /x/, causing compensatory lengthening and nasalisation of the preceding vowel — *ḱónketi "(s)he hangs" > *hanhidi (phonetically [ˈxɑ̃ːxiði])
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