Proto-Rathmosian: Difference between revisions

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Proto-Rathmosian (view source)

Revision as of 13:52, 17 July 2019

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! style="" |Nasal
! style="" |Nasal
|style="width: 68px; "|
|style="width: 68px; "|
| style="width: 68px; "| m
| style="width: 68px; "| '''m''' /m/
|style="width: 68px; "|  
|style="width: 68px; "|  
| style="width: 68px; "| n
| style="width: 68px; "| '''n''' /n/
| style="width: 68px; "|
| style="width: 68px; "|
|style="width: 68px; "|
|style="width: 68px; "|
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|-
|-
! style="" |Plosive
! style="" |Plosive
| p
| '''p''' /p/
| b
| '''b''' /b/
| t  
| '''t''' /t/
| d
| '''d''' /d/
|
|
|
|
| k  
| '''k''' /k/
| g
| '''g''' /g/
|-
|-
! style="" |Fricative
! style="" |Fricative
| ɸ  
| '''f''' /ɸ/
|
|
| s  
| '''s''' /s/
|
|
|  
|  
|
|
| x  
| '''h''' /x/
|
|
|-
|-
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|  
|  
|
|
| ts  
| '''ts''' /ts/
|
|
|  
|  
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|
|
|  
|  
| r
| '''r''' /r/
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|
|
|
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! style="" |Approximant
! style="" |Approximant
|  
|  
| w
| '''w''' /w/
|
|
|  
|  
|
|
| j
| '''y''' /j/
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| l
| '''l''' /l/
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Nouns are declined according to eight cases:
Nouns are declined according to eight cases:


* '''Absolutive''' denotes the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb.
* '''Absolutive''' denotes the patient of a verb, either the direct object of a transitive verb or the subject of certain intransitive verbs.
* '''Ergative''' denotes the subject of a transitive verb.
* '''Ergative''' denotes the agent of the verb, either the subject of a transitive or certain intransitive verbs.
* '''Dative''' denotes the indirect object of a verb and describes motion towards.
* '''Dative''' denotes the indirect object of a verb and describes motion towards.
* '''Genitive''' denotes the possessor of an object.
* '''Genitive''' denotes the possessor of an object.
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===Number===
===Number===
There are three numbers: '''singular''', '''plural''' and '''collective''', the last of which may denote a discrete group of objects or a class as a whole.
There are two numbers: '''singular''' and '''plural'''.


===Inflexion===
===Inflexion===
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|-
|-
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
| width="10%;" | - || ''negu'' || width="10%;" | '''''-wa''''' || ''neguwa''
| width="10%;" | - || ''nega'' || width="10%;" | '''''-wa''''' || ''negawa''
|-
|-
! Ergative  
! Ergative  
| '''''-s'''''|| ''negus'' || '''''-ns''''' || ''neguns''
| '''''-s'''''|| ''negas'' || '''''-ns''''' || ''negans''
|-
|-
! Dative  
! Dative  
| '''''-yep''''' || ''neguyep'' || '''''-nep'''''|| ''negunep''  
| '''''-yep''''' || ''negayep'' || '''''-nep'''''|| ''neganep''  
|-
|-
! Genitive  
! Genitive  
| '''''-y'''''|| ''neguy'' || '''''-ni''''' || ''neguni''  
| '''''-y'''''|| ''negay'' || '''''-ni''''' || ''negani''  
|-
|-
! Ablative  
! Ablative  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''neguta''|| '''''-nta''''' || ''negunta''  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''negata''|| '''''-nta''''' || ''neganta''  
|-
|-
! Instrumental  
! Instrumental  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''negura'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''negurra''  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''negara'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''negarra''  
|-
|-
! Locative  
! Locative  
| '''''-yen''''' || ''neguyen'' || '''''-nen''''' || ''negunen''  
| '''''-yen''''' || ''negayen'' || '''''-nen''''' || ''neganen''  
|-
|-
! Comitative  
! Comitative  
| '''''-kun''''' || ''negukun''|| '''''-nkun''''' || ''negunkun''
| '''''-kun''''' || ''negakun''|| '''''-nkun''''' || ''negankun''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! Ergative  
! Ergative  
| '''''-s'''''|| ''kers'' || '''''-ns''''' || ''kerəns''
| '''''-s'''''|| ''kers'' || '''''-əns''''' || ''kerəns''
|-
|-
! Dative  
! Dative  
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|-
|-
! Ablative  
! Ablative  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''kerta''|| '''''-nta''''' || ''kerənta''  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''kerta''|| '''''-ənta''''' || ''kerənta''  
|-
|-
! Instrumental  
! Instrumental  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''kerra'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''kerərra''  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''kerra'' || '''''-ərra''''' || ''kerərra''  
|-
|-
! Locative  
! Locative  
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|-
|-
! Comitative  
! Comitative  
| '''''-kun''''' || ''kerkun''|| '''''-nkun''''' || ''kerənkun''
| '''''-kun''''' || ''kerkun''|| '''''-ənkun''''' || ''kerənkun''
|-
|-
|}
|}


==Verbs==
{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
Verbal conjugation is agglutinative and verbs may be marked for aspect (imperfective, perfective), valency (transitive, intransitive, passive, causative), and argument (absolutive, ergative).
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Animate Masculine (''keril'' "lord, king")
|-
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural
|-
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
| width="10%;" | - || ''keril'' || width="10%;" | '''''-wa''''' || ''kerilwa''
|-
! Ergative
| '''''-s'''''|| ''kerils'' || '''''-əns''''' || ''keriləns''
|-
! Dative
| '''''-ep''''' || ''kerilep'' || '''''-nep'''''|| ''kerilnep''
|-
! Genitive
| '''''-i'''''|| ''kerili'' || '''''-ni''''' || ''kerilni''
|-
! Ablative
| '''''-ta''''' || ''kerilta''|| '''''-ənta''''' || ''kerilənta''
|-
! Instrumental
| '''''-ra''''' || ''kerilra'' || '''''-ərra''''' || ''kerilərra''
|-
! Locative
| '''''-en''''' || ''kerilen'' || '''''-nen''''' || ''kerilnen''
|-
! Comitative
| '''''-kun''''' || ''kerilkun''|| '''''-ənkun''''' || ''kerilənkun''
|-
|}
 
{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Inanimate: vocalic stem (''hemaku'' "sky")
|-
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural
|-
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
| width="10%;" | - || ''hemaku'' || width="10%;" | '''''-r''''' || ''hemakur''
|-
! Dative
| '''''-m''''' || ''hemakum'' || '''''-rm'''''|| ''hemakurm''
|-
! Genitive
| '''''-ya'''''|| ''hemakuya'' || '''''-rya''''' || ''hemakurya''
|-
! Ablative
| '''''-ta''''' || ''hemakuta''|| '''''-rta''''' || ''hemakurta''
|-
! Instrumental
| '''''-ra''''' || ''hemakura'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''hemakurra''
|-
! Locative
| '''''-yen''''' || ''hemakuyen'' || '''''-ren''''' || ''hemakuren''
|-
! Comitative
| '''''-kun''''' || ''hemakukun''|| '''''-rkun''''' || ''hemakurkun''
|-
|}


The primary division in verbal morphology is made between '''dynamic''' ('''Class I''') verbs and '''stative''' ('''Class II''') verbs. Dynamic verbs denote actions and verbs of motion while stative verbs refer to states of being and include the large class of adjectival verbs, such as ''dreh-'' "to be red", ''mlak-'' "to be dead". A verbal stem belongs primarily to one or other class, depending on its semantics but the boundaries are not inflexible.
{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Inanimate: consonantal stem (''renadik'' "book")
|-
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural
|-
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
| width="10%;" | - || ''renadik'' || width="10%;" | '''''-ər''''' || ''renadikər''
|-
! Dative
| '''''-m''''' || ''renadikəm'' || '''''-ərm'''''|| ''renadikərm''
|-
! Genitive
| '''''-ya'''''|| ''renadikya'' || '''''-ərya''''' || ''renadikərya''
|-
! Ablative
| '''''-ta''''' || ''renadikta''|| '''''-ərta''''' || ''renadikərta''
|-
! Instrumental
| '''''-ra''''' || ''renadikra'' || '''''-ərra''''' || ''renadikərra''
|-
! Locative
| '''''-en''''' || ''renadiken'' || '''''-ren''''' || ''renadikren''  
|-
! Comitative
| '''''-kun''''' || ''renadikkun''|| '''''-ərkun''''' || ''renadikərkun''
|-
|}


Class I verbs are marked for aspect. The '''imperfective''', denoting incompleted or continuous action and often understood as non-past, is marked with the infix ''-n-'' following the root. The '''perfective''', denoting completed action and usually referring to the past, takes ''-t-''. For example ''yur-'' "run" → ''yurn-'' "runs, running", ''yurt-'' "ran". Class II verbs are not marked for tense. As stative verbs they are understood to be imperfective and general in time. Because of the way aspect marking occurs, verbs are able to pass between classes. Class I verbs may be treated as Class II (i.e. unmarked) in order to give a gnomic sense, though this is generally restricted to poetic and proverbial usage ''hedər hedus'' "birds fly". Far more common is the use of Class II roots with Class I aspect markers to give an inchoative sense, e.g. ''mlak-'' "be dead" → ''mlagn-'' "become dead die", ''mlakt-'' "became dead, died".
Note that inanimate nouns do not have ergative forms.


The aspect markers, or the stem directly in Class II verbs, are followed by valency markers: ''-a-'' for intransitive verbs, ''-i-'' for passive verbs and ''-u-'' for transitive verbs. Class II verbs are always intransitive.  
==Verbs==
Verb forms in Rathmosian are largely agglutinative and the verbal system could be described as active-stative, in which verbs are marked differently according to the degree of agency the subject has. Verbal stems are divided into five classes, according to agency, transitivity and activity. Verb roots may change internally to indicate certain aspects, and derivational prefixes and suffixes may be added to the root to alter its basic meaning. However, the conjugation of the verb is largely carried out with suffixes to indicate aspect, voice, subject and object. The order of elements is fixed in the following ways:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Elements of the Verb'''
|+ '''Elements of the Verb'''
|-
|-
| Prefixes || '''Root''' || Derivation || Aspect Marker || Valency Marker || Absolutive || Ergative  
| style="width: 100px;" | Derivational <br /> Prefixes || style="width: 100px;" | '''ROOT''' ||style="width: 100px;" | Derivational <br /> Suffixes ||style="width: 100px;" | Aspect <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Voice <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Absolutive <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Ergative <br /> Marker
|}
|}


The aspect markers are ''-n-'' for the imperfective and ''-k-'' for the perfective in Class I. Class II verbs are not marked for aspect.  
===Verbal Classes===
Rathmosian verb roots are divided into five classes (I-V) according to whether they are active or stative, and how much agency the subject has. These classes affect the way in which the aspect and voice markers are used.


The valency markers are ''-a-'' for intransitive verbs, ''-i-'' for antipassive verbs and ''-u-'' for transitive verbs.
* '''Class I''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject of the verb is not the agent, and which describe fixed or ongoing states, usually translated into English with 'be' and an adjective, e.g. ''dreh-'' "be red", ''rin-'' "be alive, live".
* '''Class II''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent and which describe a change of state, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die", ''tum-'' "fall".
* '''Class III''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent, and which describe a temporary state or an uncontrolled action, e.g. ''fal-'' "sleep", ''kled-'' "stand".
* '''Class IV''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is the active agent of the verb, e.g. ''yur-'' "run", ''met-'' "speak".
* '''Class V''' verbs are transitives.


The absolutive markers agree with the subject of a intransitive verb or the direct object of an transitive verb. The 3rd person may be animate or inanimate. The 1st and 2nd person forms differ depending on whether they are followed by an ergative marker.  
Some roots may belong to more than one class with a change of meaning, e.g. ''yur-'' "run" may be Class IV when the subject is an animate noun and the sense is "propel oneself quickly" but is Class III when the subject is inanimate and the sense is "flow, move quickly".
 
===Aspect===
Verbal aspect is marked by altering the form of the root itself or by adding suffixes to the primary root:
* The primary root is considered to be '''generic''' or gnomic in aspect, describing states or actions without regard to their state of completeness, e.g. ''ker-'' "rule", ''mlak-'' "be dead"
* The lengthened root is '''imperfective''', describing ongoing actions, e.g. ''keer-'' "rules, ruling".
* The reduplicated root is '''perfective''', describing completed actions, e.g. ''keker-'' "ruled"
* The addition of ''-n-'' to the root creates the '''inchoative''' aspect, describing the beginning of actions or 'becoming' a state, e.g. ''kern-'' "begin to rule", ''mlagn-'' "die"
* The addition of ''-tsat-'' to the root creates the '''frequentative''' aspect, describing repetitive events or habitual states, e.g. ''kertsat-'' "rules (often)", ''kuktsat-'' "eats often, grazes", ''plustsat-'' "often be sick".
* The addition of ''-t-'' to the root creates the '''intensitive''' aspect, describing more severe forms of the action or state, the latter equivalent to "very ...", e.g. ''kert-'' "tyrannise, subjugate", ''plust-'' "be very sick".
 
===Voice===
Voice markers function in different ways for different verbs. They are distinguished primarily for the ways in which they focus the subject or object of the verb.
 
* '''Patient focus''' is marked with '''''-a-''''' and is mainly used with intransitive verbs in which the subject is the patient of the verb (i.e. Classes I-III), e.g. ''dreha-'' "be red", ''tuma-'' "fall". Used with semantically transitive verbs of Class V, it is effectively a passive marker e.g. ''keyka-'' "is seen". The subject of patient focus verb is in the Abs. case and there can be no direct object.
* '''Dual focus''' is marked with '''''-i-''''' and is used only with Class V (transitive) verbs in which both the subject and direct object are stated, e.g. ''keri-'' "rule". The subject of the verb is in the ergative case and the direct object in the absolutive.
* '''Agent focus''' verbs are marked with '''''-u-''''' and are used with Class IV and V verbs, where the subject is the agent of the verb, but where no direct object is stated e.g. ''kuku-'' "eat", ''yuru-'' "run". The subject is in the ergative case for both transitive and intransitive verbs.
* '''Medial''' verbs are marked with '''''-e-''''' and are used with Class V transitive verbs when the agent and the patient refer to the same entity, creating a reciprocal or reflexive meaning, e.g. ''sape-'' "wash oneself". The subject here is in the ergative case.
* '''Causative''' verbs are marked with '''''-im-''''', which is added to intransitive verbs (Class I-IV) to create a transitive, or to transitive (Class V) verbs to make a ditransitive, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die" > ''mlakim-'' "kill", ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykim-'' "show, explain". The subject ('causer') of the verb is always in the ergative. The subject of an originally intransitive verb or the direct object of an originally transitive verb remains in the absolutive case. The subject of an originally transitive verb is demoted to the dative.
* '''Patient Causative''' verbs take '''''-am-''''' and are used to describe an action or state which is assumed to be caused, but without reference to the 'causer', creating a passive causative, e.g. ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykam-'' "is made to see, understands", ''mlak-'' "die" > ''mlakam-'' "is killed"
* '''Autocausative''' verbs take '''''-em''''' and create a causative in which the agent causes the action to itself, e.g. ''mlakem-'' "kill oneself".
 
===Subject and Object Markers===
The absolutive markers agree with the subject of a intransitive verb or the direct object of an transitive verb. The 3rd person may be animate or inanimate.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| ''-f-, -p'' || ''-mf-, -mp''
| ''-n'' || ''-l''
|-
|-
! 2  
! 2  
| ''-h-, -k'' || ''-nh-, -nk''
| ''-ts'' || ''-h''
|-
|-
! 3an
! 3an
| ''-s-'' || ''-ns-''
| ''-d'' || ''-w''
|-
|-
! 3in
! 3in
| ''-b-'' || ''-w-''
| ''-b'' || ''-r''
|}
|}
Where the previous element ends in a consonant, the epenthetic vowel ''ə'' may be inserted, e.g. ''mumubnaməd'' "he was saddened", ''


The ergative markers agree with the subject of a transitive verb. Since inanimate nouns cannot be the agent of a verb, by definintion, there are no inanimate ergative markers.
The ergative markers agree with the subject of a transitive verb. Since inanimate nouns cannot be the agent of a verb, by definintion, there are no inanimate ergative markers.
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|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| ''-em'' || ''-ib''
| ''-u'' || ''-an''
|-
|-
! 2  
! 2  
| ''-en'' || ''-ig''
| ''-isk'' || ''-enk''
|-
|-
! 3an
! 3an
| ''-er'' || ''-id''
| ''-et'' || ''-af''
|}
|}
Examples:
* ''reeykinu'' "I love you"
* ''kekeykiran'' "we saw them"
* ''faalad'' "they are sleeping"
* ''yuyurut'' "he/she ran"


=Syntax=
=Syntax=
=Vocabulary=
=Vocabulary=
Psammead
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