Proto-Rathmosian: Difference between revisions

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Proto-Rathmosian (view source)

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! style="" |Nasal
! style="" |Nasal
|style="width: 68px; "|
|style="width: 68px; "|
| style="width: 68px; "| m
| style="width: 68px; "| '''m''' /m/
|style="width: 68px; "|  
|style="width: 68px; "|  
| style="width: 68px; "| n
| style="width: 68px; "| '''n''' /n/
| style="width: 68px; "|
| style="width: 68px; "|
|style="width: 68px; "|
|style="width: 68px; "|
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|-
|-
! style="" |Plosive
! style="" |Plosive
| p
| '''p''' /p/
| b
| '''b''' /b/
| t  
| '''t''' /t/
| d
| '''d''' /d/
|
|
|
|
| k  
| '''k''' /k/
| g
| '''g''' /g/
|-
|-
! style="" |Fricative
! style="" |Fricative
| ɸ  
| '''f''' /ɸ/
|
|
| s  
| '''s''' /s/
|
|
|  
|  
|
|
| x  
| '''h''' /x/
|
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|-
|-
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|  
|  
|
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| ts  
| '''ts''' /ts/
|
|
|  
|  
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|
|  
|  
| r
| '''r''' /r/
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! style="" |Approximant
! style="" |Approximant
|  
|  
| w
| '''w''' /w/
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|  
|  
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| j
| '''y''' /j/
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| l
| '''l''' /l/
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===Secondary Roots===
===Secondary Roots===
Secondary roots are derived from primary ones by one of three clearly defined and mostly predictable phonological processes:
Secondary roots are derived from primary ones by one of two clearly defined and mostly predictable phonological processes:


* '''Vowel Lengthening''' doubles the vowel of the primary root, e.g. ''ret-'' > ''reet-'', ''tiyk-'' > ''tiiyk''.  
* '''Vowel Lengthening''' doubles the vowel of the primary root, e.g. ''ret-'' > ''reet-'', ''tiyk-'' > ''tiiyk''.  
* '''Vowel deletion''' removes the primary vowel enitrely, e.g. ''ker-'' > ''Vkr-'', ''hed-'' > ''Vhd-''. Where this creates an impossible consonant cluster, the reduced vowel ''ə'' /ə/ is inserted (its position depends on the order of the consonants), e.g. ''mlak-'' > ''Vməlk-'', ''dreh-'' > ''Vdərh-''. Where a glide ''w'' or ''y'' remains after the deletion of a vowel, it becomes vocalic ''u'' or ''i'', e.g. ''reyk-'' > ''Vrik-'', ''trayh-'' > ''Vtrih''.
* '''Reduplication''' involves the addition of the first consonant plus the main vowel of the root to the beginning of a word and the deletion of the main vowel from the root itself, e.g. ''ret- > rert''. Note that rules of phonotactics laid out below are also applied, so e.g. ''ker- > kegr-'' not ''*kekr-''. There are a number of complications to reduplication:
* '''Reduplication''' involves the addition of the first consonant plus the reduced vowel ''ə'' to the beginning of a word, e.g. ''ret-'' > ''rəret-'', ''sluyn-'' > ''səsluyn-''.
** Where the root is followed directly by a vowel:
*** Roots of the structure C<sub>1</sub>VC<sub>2</sub> become C<sub>1</sub>VC<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>, e.g. ''min- > mimn-''.
*** Roots containing an internal glide lose the main vowel and convert the glide into a vowel (''y > i'' or ''w > u'', e.g. ''sluyn- > suslin-.
*** Roots containing an internal liquid lose their main vowel and then insert the reduced vowel ''ə'' before the liquid, e.g. ''mlak- > maməlk-''.
** Where the root is followed by a consonant:
*** Roots ending with a glide lose their main vowel and convert the glide to a vowel, e.g. ''biw-n- > bibu-n-''
*** Roots ending in a liquid lose their main vowel and replace it with ''ə'', e.g. ''ker-n > kekər-n-''
*** All other roots retain their main vowel, e.g. ''mlak-n- > mamlagn-'', ''ret- > reredn-''


===Affixes===
===Affixes===
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=Morphology=
=Morphology=
==Verbs==
Verb forms in Rathmosian are largely agglutinative and the verbal system could be described as active-stative, in which verbs are marked differently according to the degree of agency the subject has. There is no clear-cut distinction made between conjugation and derivation with, for example, verbal aspect belonging to both categories.
Verbal stems are divided into five classes based on their level of agency, transitivity and activeness. Verb roots may change internally to indicate certain aspects, and derivational prefixes and suffixes may be added to the root to alter its basic meaning. However, the conjugation of the verb is largely carried out with suffixes to indicate aspect, voice, subject and object. The order of elements is fixed in the following ways:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Elements of the Verb'''
|-
|style="width: 100px;" | Negative <br /> Prefix  || style="width: 100px;" | Directional <br /> Prefixes || style="width: 100px;" | '''ROOT''' ||style="width: 100px;" | Aspect <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Causative <br /> ''-əm-'' ||style="width: 100px;" | Voice <br /> Marker || style="width: 100px;" | Mood <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Absolutive <br /> Marker ||style="width: 100px;" | Ergative <br /> Marker
|}
===Verbal Classes===
Rathmosian verb stems are divided into five classes (I-V) according to whether they are active or stative, and how much agency the subject has. These classes affect the way in which the aspect and voice markers are used.
* '''Class I''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject of the verb is not the agent, and which describe fixed or ongoing states, usually translated into English with 'be' and an adjective, e.g. ''dreh-'' "be red", ''rin-'' "be alive, live".
* '''Class II''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent and which describe a change of state, e.g. ''mlak-'' "die", ''tum-'' "fall".
* '''Class III''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is not the agent, and which describe a temporary state or an uncontrolled action, e.g. ''fal-'' "sleep", ''kled-'' "stand".
* '''Class IV''' verbs are intransitives in which the subject is the active agent of the verb, e.g. ''yur-'' "run", ''met-'' "speak".
* '''Class V''' verbs are transitives.
Some roots may belong to more than one class with a change of meaning, e.g. ''yur-'' "run" may be Class IV when the subject is an animate noun and the sense is "propel oneself quickly" but is Class III when the subject is inanimate and the sense is "flow, move quickly". The distinction, in practice, between the two senses is shown by the suffixes added to the root.
===Aspect===
Verbals aspects may be conjugational or derivational.
====Conjugational Aspects====
These are formed from the root alone and convey the primary aspect distinction between imperfective (incomplete) and perfective (complete) actions or states. These aspects can generally be applied to any verb, with some semantic restrictions.
* The primary root is '''imperfective''', describing ongoing or incomplete actions/states, e.g. ''ker-'' "ruling", ''fal-'' "sleeping".
* The lengthened root is '''perfective''', describing completed actions/states, e.g. ''keer-'' "ruled", ''faal-'' "slept".
====Derivational Aspects====
These are generally formed with affixes attached to the root and often alter the semantics of a verb. They may be used in conjunction with the conjugational aspects.
* The reduplicated root marks the '''frequentative''' aspect, usually describing actions characterised by rapid repetition and often used to diminish the intensity of states or actions e.g. ''fafl-'' "sleeps fitfully", ''dedərh-'' "is somewhat red".
* The addition of ''-t-'' to the root creates the '''habitual''' aspect, describing actions that are regularly carried out or states that are regularly attained, sometimes shading towards a gnomic meaning, e.g. ''kert-'' "rules (often)", ''falt-'' "sleeps (often)", ''dreht-'' "is red".
* The addition of ''-n-'' to the root creates the '''inchoative''' aspect, describing the beginning of actions or 'becoming' a state, e.g. ''kern-'' "begin to rule", ''faln-'' "fall asleep".
* The addition of ''-ban-'' creates the '''terminative''' aspect, describing the end of actions or states, e.g. ''kerban-'' "ceased to rule", ''falban-'' "woke up".
* The addition of ''-tsat-'' to the root creates the '''intensitive''' aspect, describing more severe forms of the action or state, e.g. ''kertsat-'' "tyrranise, subjugate", ''faltsat-'' "sleep deeply". After plosives, the affix is ''-sat-'', e.g. ''kuksat-'' "gorges".
===Voice===
Voice markers function in different ways for different verbs. They are distinguished primarily for the ways in which they focus the subject or object of the verb. The four primary voice categories are:
* '''Patient focus''' is marked with '''''-a-''''' and is mainly used with intransitive verbs in which the subject is the patient of the verb (i.e. Classes I-III), e.g. ''dreha-'' "be red", ''tuma-'' "fall". Used with semantically transitive verbs of Class V, it is effectively a passive marker e.g. ''keyka-'' "is seen". The subject of patient focus verb is in the Abs. case and there can be no direct object.
* '''Dual focus''' is marked with '''''-i-''''' and is used only with Class V (transitive) verbs in which both the subject and direct object are stated, e.g. ''keri-'' "rule". The subject of the verb is in the ergative case and the direct object in the absolutive.
* '''Agent focus''' verbs are marked with '''''-u-''''' and are used with Class IV and V verbs, where the subject is the agent of the verb, but where no direct object is stated e.g. ''kuku-'' "eat", ''yuru-'' "run". The subject is in the ergative case for both transitive and intransitive verbs.
* '''Medial''' verbs are marked with '''''-e-''''' and are used with Class V transitive verbs when the agent and the patient refer to the same entity, creating a reciprocal or reflexive meaning, e.g. ''sape-'' "wash oneself". The subject here is in the ergative case.
In addition, there is a '''Causative''' infix '''''-əm-''''', which may be used preceding the voice markers in the following ways:
* '''''-əmi-''''' and '''''-əmu-''''' form the basic causatives and are added to intransitive verbs (Class I-IV) to create a transitive, or to transitive (Class V) verbs to make a ditransitive, e.g. ''mlak-'' "be dead" (intrans.) > ''mlakəmi-'' "kill" (trans.), ''keyk-'' "see" (trans.) > ''keykəmu-'' "show, explain" (ditrans.). In the first case (''əmi''), both the subject and direct object of the causative verb are stated; in the second (''əmu''), the direct object is omitted. The subject ('causer') of the causative verb is always in the ergative. The subject of the original verb, whether transitive or intransitive, takes the absolutive case. The direct object of an originally transitive verb is demoted to the dative.
* '''''-əma-''''' creates the '''Patient Causative''', used to describe an action or state which is assumed to be caused, but without reference to the 'causer', e.g. ''keyk-'' "see" > ''keykəma-'' "is made to see, understands", ''mlak-'' "be dead" > ''mlakəma-'' "is killed".
* '''''-əme-''''' creates an '''Autocausative''', in which the agent causes the action to itself, e.g. ''mlakəme-'' "kill oneself".
===Mood===
There are five moods, indicated by affixes that follow the voice markers:
* The '''indicative''' or '''realis''' mood, which denotes events deemed by the speaker to be real, is indicated by the absence of a mood marker, e.g. ''keeykatsu'' "I saw you".
* The '''potential''' mood, which indicates that an event is likely, is marked by '''''-bel-''''', e.g. ''keeykabeltsu'' "I probably saw you".
* The '''possible''' mood, which indicates that an event may have taken place, is marked by '''''-ker-''''', e.g. ''keeykakertsu'' "I may have seen you".
* The '''irrealis''' or '''hypothetical''' mood, which denotes events known not to be true, is indicated by '''''-wal-''''', e.g. ''keeykawaltsu''
* The '''hortative''' mood, which denotes a request or encouragement, and the '''imperative''', which denotes a command, are marked with '''''-p-'''''. The hortative is used in the first and third persons, e.g. ''keykupu'' "let me see", ''falapəd'' "let him/her sleep". The imperative is used only in the second person, e.g. ''kukupisk!'' "eat".
===Negation===
Negation of the verbal string is indicated with the negative prefix '''''ga-''''' added to the beginning, e.g. ''gakuukibu'' "I did not eat it".
===Subject and Object Markers===
The absolutive markers agree with the subject of a intransitive verb or the direct object of an transitive verb. The 3rd person may be animate or inanimate.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Absolutive Markers'''
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''-n'' || ''-l''
|-
! 2
| ''-ts'' || ''-h''
|-
! 3an
| ''-d'' || ''-w''
|-
! 3in
| ''-b'' || ''-r''
|}
Where the previous element ends in a consonant, the epenthetic vowel ''ə'' may be inserted, e.g. ''mubnaməd'' "he was saddened", ''
The ergative markers agree with the subject of a transitive verb. Since inanimate nouns cannot be the agent of a verb, by definintion, there are no inanimate ergative markers.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Ergative Markers'''
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''-u'' || ''-an''
|-
! 2
| ''-isk'' || ''-enk''
|-
! 3an
| ''-et'' || ''-af''
|}
Examples:
* ''reykitsu'' "I love you"
* ''keeykiwan'' "we saw them"
* ''falaw'' "they are sleeping"
* ''yuurut'' "he/she ran"
===Verbals Nouns and Participles===
Each verb has a verbal noun and most have two or three participles.
Verbal nouns are created from the root of the verb + either ''-a'' or ''-u'':
* '''Class I''' verbs take ''-a'' to create an abstract noun of state, e.g. ''dreha'' "redness (the state of being red)", ''nuka'' "darkness".
* '''Class II''' & '''III''' verbs take ''-a'' to form a simple gerund, e.g. ''tuma'' "falling", ''fala'' "sleeping".
* '''Class IV''' & '''V''' verbs take ''-u'' to form a simple gerund, e.g. ''yuru'' "running", ''kuku'' "eating".
* '''Class V''' verbs can also take ''-a'' to create a passive verbal noun, e.g. ''kuka'' "being eaten".
Verbal nouns can be formed from extended stems, e.g. ''mlagna'' "dying", ''metsatu'' "speaking quickly, babbling".
Two forms of participles exist, one ending in ''-t'' and one ending in ''-s''.
Participles are formed in a similar way to verb nouns, with an additional ''-t'' after the voice marker. The primary root is used to form the equivalent of a present participle, e.g. ''yurut'' "running", ''falat'' "sleeping". The lengthened root forms a past participle, e.g. ''kuukat'' "eaten", ''tuumat'' "fallen".
==Nouns==
==Nouns==
Nouns belong to one of three classes and are declined into eight cases and three numbers.
Nouns belong to one of three classes and are declined into eight cases and three numbers.
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Nouns are declined according to eight cases:
Nouns are declined according to eight cases:


* '''Absolutive''' denotes the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb.
* '''Absolutive''' denotes the patient of a verb, either the direct object of a transitive verb or the subject of certain intransitive verbs.
* '''Ergative''' denotes the subject of a transitive verb.
* '''Ergative''' denotes the agent of the verb, either the subject of a transitive or certain intransitive verbs.
* '''Dative''' denotes the indirect object of a verb and describes motion towards.
* '''Dative''' denotes the indirect object of a verb and describes motion towards.
* '''Genitive''' denotes the possessor of an object.
* '''Genitive''' denotes the possessor of an object.
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===Number===
===Number===
There are three numbers: '''singular''', '''plural''' and '''collective''', the last of which may denote a discrete group of objects or a class as a whole.
There are two numbers: '''singular''' and '''plural'''.


===Inflexion===
===Inflexion===
{| class="wikitable" width="80%;" caption-side:
{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Animate Common (''negu'' "woman")
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Animate Common: vocalic stem (''negu'' "woman")
|-
|-
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural !! colspan="2;" | Collective
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural  
|-
|-
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
| width="10%;" | - || ''negu'' || width="10%;" | '''''-ṷa''''' || ''neguṷa''|| width="10%;" | '''''-r''''' || ''negur''
| width="10%;" | - || ''nega'' || width="10%;" | '''''-wa''''' || ''negawa''
|-
|-
! Ergative  
! Ergative  
| '''''-s'''''|| ''negus'' || '''''-ns''''' || ''neguns''|| '''''-ru'''''|| ''neguru''
| '''''-s'''''|| ''negas'' || '''''-ns''''' || ''negans''
|-
|-
! Dative  
! Dative  
| '''''-(i̯)ep''''' || ''negui̯ep'' || '''''-nep'''''|| ''negunep'' || '''''-rep''''' || ''negurep''
| '''''-yep''''' || ''negayep'' || '''''-nep'''''|| ''neganep''  
|-
|-
! Genitive  
! Genitive  
| '''''-i'''''|| ''negui̯'' || '''''-ni''''' || ''neguni'' || '''''-ri''''' || ''neguri''
| '''''-y'''''|| ''negay'' || '''''-ni''''' || ''negani''  
|-
|-
! Ablative  
! Ablative  
| '''''-ta''''' || ''neguta''|| '''''-nta''''' || ''negunta'' || '''''-rta''''' || ''negurta''
| '''''-ta''''' || ''negata''|| '''''-nta''''' || ''neganta''  
|-
|-
! Instrumental  
! Instrumental  
| '''''-ra''''' || ''negura'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''negurra'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''negurra''
| '''''-ra''''' || ''negara'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''negarra''  
|-
|-
! Locative  
! Locative  
| '''''-(i̯)en''''' || ''negui̯en'' || '''''-nen''''' || ''negunen'' || '''''-ren''''' || ''neguren''
| '''''-yen''''' || ''negayen'' || '''''-nen''''' || ''neganen''  
|-
|-
! Comitative  
! Comitative  
| '''''-kun''''' || ''negukun''|| '''''-nkun''''' || ''negunkun''|| '''''-rkun''''' || ''negurkun''
| '''''-kun''''' || ''negakun''|| '''''-nkun''''' || ''negankun''
|-
|-
|}
|}


==Verbs==
{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
Verbal conjugation is agglutinative and verbs may be marked for aspect (imperfective, perfective), valency (transitive, intransitive, passive, causative), and argument (absolutive, ergative).
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Animate Common: consonantal stem (''ker'' "ruler")
|-
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural
|-
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
| width="10%;" | - || ''ker'' || width="10%;" | '''''-wa''''' || ''kerwa''
|-
! Ergative
| '''''-s'''''|| ''kers'' || '''''-əns''''' || ''kerəns''
|-
! Dative
| '''''-ep''''' || ''kerep'' || '''''-nep'''''|| ''kernep''
|-
! Genitive
| '''''-i'''''|| ''keri'' || '''''-ni''''' || ''kerni''
|-
! Ablative
| '''''-ta''''' || ''kerta''|| '''''-ənta''''' || ''kerənta''
|-
! Instrumental
| '''''-ra''''' || ''kerra'' || '''''-ərra''''' || ''kerərra''
|-
! Locative
| '''''-en''''' || ''keren'' || '''''-nen''''' || ''kernen''
|-
! Comitative
| '''''-kun''''' || ''kerkun''|| '''''-ənkun''''' || ''kerənkun''
|-
|}


The primary division in verbal morphology is made between '''dynamic''' ('''Class I''') verbs and '''stative''' ('''Class II''') verbs. Dynamic verbs denote actions and verbs of motion while stative verbs refer to states of being and include the large class of adjectival verbs, such as ''dreh-'' "to be red", ''mlak-'' "to be dead". A verbal stem belongs primarily to one or other class, depending on its semantics but the boundaries are not inflexible.
{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
 
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Animate Masculine (''keril'' "lord, king")
Class I verbs are marked for aspect. The '''imperfective''', denoting incompleted or continuous action and often understood as non-past, is marked with the infix ''-n-'' following the root. The '''perfective''', denoting completed action and usually referring to the past, takes ''-t-''. For example ''yur-'' "run" → ''yurn-'' "runs, running", ''yurt-'' "ran". Class II verbs are not marked for tense. As stative verbs they are understood to be imperfective and general in time. Because of the way aspect marking occurs, verbs are able to pass between classes. Class I verbs may be treated as Class II (i.e. unmarked) in order to give a gnomic sense, though this is generally restricted to poetic and proverbial usage ''hedər hedus'' "birds fly". Far more common is the use of Class II roots with Class I aspect markers to give an inchoative sense, e.g. ''mlak-'' "be dead" → ''mlagn-'' "become dead die", ''mlakt-'' "became dead, died".
|-
 
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural
The aspect markers, or the stem directly in Class II verbs, are followed by valency markers: ''-a-'' for intransitive verbs, ''-i-'' for passive verbs and ''-u-'' for transitive verbs. Class II verbs are always intransitive.
|-
 
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
{| class="wikitable"
| width="10%;" | - || ''keril'' || width="10%;" | '''''-wa''''' || ''kerilwa''
|+ '''Elements of the Verb'''
|-
! Ergative
| '''''-s'''''|| ''kerils'' || '''''-əns''''' || ''keriləns''
|-
! Dative
| '''''-ep''''' || ''kerilep'' || '''''-nep'''''|| ''kerilnep''  
|-
! Genitive
| '''''-i'''''|| ''kerili'' || '''''-ni''''' || ''kerilni''
|-
! Ablative
| '''''-ta''''' || ''kerilta''|| '''''-ənta''''' || ''kerilənta''  
|-
! Instrumental
| '''''-ra''''' || ''kerilra'' || '''''-ərra''''' || ''kerilərra''
|-
! Locative
| '''''-en''''' || ''kerilen'' || '''''-nen''''' || ''kerilnen''  
|-
! Comitative
| '''''-kun''''' || ''kerilkun''|| '''''-ənkun''''' || ''kerilənkun''
|-
|-
| Prefixes || '''Root''' || Derivation || Aspect Marker || Valency Marker || Absolutive || Ergative
|}
|}


The aspect markers are ''-n-'' for the imperfective and ''-k-'' for the perfective in Class I. Class II verbs are not marked for aspect.
{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
 
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Inanimate: vocalic stem (''hemaku'' "sky")
The valency markers are ''-a-'' for intransitive verbs, ''-i-'' for antipassive verbs and ''-u-'' for transitive verbs.
|-
 
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural
The absolutive markers agree with the subject of a intransitive verb or the direct object of an transitive verb. The 3rd person may be animate or inanimate. The 1st and 2nd person forms differ depending on whether they are followed by an ergative marker.
|-
 
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
| width="10%;" | - || ''hemaku'' || width="10%;" | '''''-r''''' || ''hemakur''
|+ '''Absolutive Markers'''
|-
! Dative
| '''''-m''''' || ''hemakum'' || '''''-rm'''''|| ''hemakurm''  
|-
! Genitive
| '''''-ya'''''|| ''hemakuya'' || '''''-rya''''' || ''hemakurya''  
|-
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
! Ablative
| '''''-ta''''' || ''hemakuta''|| '''''-rta''''' || ''hemakurta''
|-
|-
! 1
! Instrumental
| ''-f-, -p'' || ''-mf-, -mp''
| '''''-ra''''' || ''hemakura'' || '''''-rra''''' || ''hemakurra''  
|-
|-
! 2
! Locative
| ''-h-, -k'' || ''-nh-, -nk''
| '''''-yen''''' || ''hemakuyen'' || '''''-ren''''' || ''hemakuren''  
|-
|-
! 3an
! Comitative
| ''-s-'' || ''-ns-''
| '''''-kun''''' || ''hemakukun''|| '''''-rkun''''' || ''hemakurkun''
|-
|-
! 3in
| ''-b-'' || ''-w-''
|}
|}


The ergative markers agree with the subject of a transitive verb. Since inanimate nouns cannot be the agent of a verb, by definintion, there are no inanimate ergative markers.
{| class="wikitable" width="60%;" caption-side:
 
|+ style="caption-side: top;"| Inanimate: consonantal stem (''renadik'' "book")
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
|+ '''Ergative Markers'''
!  !! colspan="2;" | Singular !! colspan="2;" | Plural
|-
! width="15%;" | Absolutive
| width="10%;" | - || ''renadik'' || width="10%;" | '''''-ər''''' || ''renadikər''
|-
! Dative
| '''''-m''''' || ''renadikəm'' || '''''-ərm'''''|| ''renadikərm''
|-
! Genitive
| '''''-ya'''''|| ''renadikya'' || '''''-ərya''''' || ''renadikərya''
|-
! Ablative
| '''''-ta''''' || ''renadikta''|| '''''-ərta''''' || ''renadikərta''  
|-
|-
! width="50;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
! Instrumental
| '''''-ra''''' || ''renadikra'' || '''''-ərra''''' || ''renadikərra''
|-
|-
! 1
! Locative
| ''-em'' || ''-ib''
| '''''-en''''' || ''renadiken'' || '''''-ren''''' || ''renadikren''  
|-
|-
! 2
! Comitative
| ''-en'' || ''-ig''
| '''''-kun''''' || ''renadikkun''|| '''''-ərkun''''' || ''renadikərkun''
|-
|-
! 3an
| ''-er'' || ''-id''
|}
|}
Note that inanimate nouns do not have ergative forms.
==Adjectives==
There are two forms of adjectives, '''verbal adjectives''' and '''nominal adjectives'''.
===Verbal Adjectives===
Verbal adjectives are Class I verbs and behave like any other member of that class, taking the same inflexional and derivational endings.
When used predicatively, verbal adjectives behave as normal verbs and follow the noun they qualify, e.g. ''negu manad'' "(the) woman is strong", ''belun harad'' "the sun is hot". When the subject of the sentence is a pronoun, the verb alone may be used or the pronoun may be added for emphasis, e.g. ''faawkan'' or ''ni faawkan'' "I was afraid".
When used attributively, these adjectives take their participle form, e.g. ''manat negu'' "(the) strong woman", ''harat belun'' "the hot sun".
===Nominal Adjectives===
Nominal adjectives are those derived from other parts of speech, be it a verb, noun or another adjective.
''neguyak gisul'' "the feminine man", ''Karakin keru'' "the Carrackish ruler".
''gisul neguyakad'' "the man is feminine", ''keru Karakinad'' "the ruler is Carrackish".
=Derivation=


=Syntax=
=Syntax=
=Vocabulary=
=Vocabulary=
Psammead
798

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